In recent years, the scholarly consensus has emerged that early Judaism should no longer be classified as a religion of legalistic works on righteousness, but rather defined primarily by God's covenant with Israel. In this work, it is argued, instead, that there is actually a tension in early Judaism between God as righteous judge and as merciful. As E. Sj berg maintained in his Gott und S nder im pal stinischen Judentum, in the sources used for a reconstruction of early Judaism, there are two mutually exclusive ways in which God is said to relate to human beings. First, God as righteous judge deals with human beings as they deserve. They are assumed to be morally free and responsible, and God judges and recompenses them in history and eschatologically. Not only are the wicked punished for their sins, but the righteous are also rewarded for their obedience. And second, God as merciful does not deal with human beings as they deserve. Rather, he removes the guilt resulting from disobedience to the Law, sometimes on the simple condition of repentance. This means that a person can escape the consequences of disobedience. The understanding of God in the sources vacillates between God as righteous judge and God as merciful, without coming down definitively on one side to the exclusion of the other.

This book is an explanation of the author’s investigation into James’ concept of God, using the historical-critical approach as a hermeneutical tool to find out how it was important to different realms of the early Messianic community and its significance to Christians today. The Epistle of James faced lot of struggles to be included in the New Testament. For various reasons, the book was not considered for early canonization. The main reason was the view that there were less theological aspects in the content of the book. Martin Luther described this book as “an epistle of straw.” Respectively, scholars like Martin Debelius, J. H. Ropes, E. J. Goodspeed and A. M. Hunter also underscore the nature of its relatively limited theology by highlighting other aspects of the Epistle of James. Therefore, this book attempts to investigate James’ theological concepts by looking into his use of the concept of God in the socio-political, religious and economic settings of the people in the text.

Mercy is an important concept in the Christian moral tradition. It is one of the most prominent divine attributes, and is embodied in Jesus Christ. This volume investigates the concept of mercy from a Protestant point of view with respect to its consequences for an increasingly non-Christian society. Starting from its biblical origins, a group of international authors explicates the intrinsically messianic logic of divine mercy for its potential in current theological ethics, practical ecclesiology, systematic and public theology.

John Barclay explores Pauline theology anew from the perspective of grace. Arguing that Paul's theology of grace is best approached in light of ancient notions of "gift," Barclay describes Paul's relationship to Judaism in a fresh way. Barclay focuses on divine gift-giving, which for Paul, he says, is focused and fulfilled in the gift of Christ. He both offers a new appraisal of Paul's theology of the Christ-event as gift as it comes to expression in Galatians and Romans and presents a nuanced and detailed consideration of the history of reception of Paul, including Augustine, Luther, Calvin, and Barth.

In this comprehensive introduction to the apostle Paul, Stanley Porter devotes serious consideration both to the background and major contours of Paul’s thought and to the unique contributions of each of his letters. Porter begins by introducing the Pauline tradition and outlining the basics of Paul’s life, the chronology of his ministry, and his several imprisonments. Porter then discusses the background to Paul’s thought, examines some of the major themes of his writings, and treats issues concerning the Pauline epistles, such as pseudonymity and canon. Finally, Porter delves into all thirteen of Paul’s letters individually, placing them within their historical contexts and examining critical issues relating to the content and interpretation of each letter. The result is a thorough, balanced treatment of one of the most important figures in Christianity.

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and Dead Sea Scrolls -- Philo, Josephus, and Classical Greek Sources -- Index of Modern Authors

The work of the Spirit of God is a vibrant and much discussed topic in many contemporary Christian communities worldwide. Apparently, the Spirit is moving. Theological reflection on this phenomenon has even given rise to what is often called a ‘pneumatological renaissance’. This volume not only takes stock of these remarkable developments, but also probes some of their hidden aspects and highlights avenues for future exploration. It contains a wide-ranging but coherent assortment of essays, covering the five relations of the Holy Ghost distinguished already in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed: how does the Spirit of God relate to the Bible, to the Christ, to the human person, to the church and to the world? These essays are written as a tribute to the many inspiring theological contributions of prof. Cornelis van der Kooi on the occasion of his retirement as Professor of Systematic Theology at the Faculty of Religion and Theology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, where he taught from 1992 until 2018. Contributors are: Henk A. Bakker, Abraham van de Beek, Erik A. de Boer, Carl J. Bosma, Gijsbert van den Brink, Martien E. Brinkman, Gerard C. den Hertog, Arnold Huijgen, Gerrit C. van de Kamp, Miranda Klaver, Akke van der Kooi, Margriet van der Kooi-Dijkstra, Bruce L. McCormack, Richard J. Mouw, Bert Jan Lietaert Peerbolte, Eveline van Staalduine-Sulman, Eep Talstra, Benno van den Toren, Jan Veenhof, Willem van Vlastuin, Pieter Vos, Michael Welker, Cory Willson, Maarten Wisse.

Kevin W. McFadden shows that Paul wrote the letter to remind Roman Christians of his gospel because of his vocation as apostle to the Gentiles. The letter simultaneously demonstrates the guilt of the world and calls Paul's audience to live out the implications of the gospel. The theme of judgment thus appears in two distinct ways. Paul opposes justification by works of law, but simultaneously affirms––as did most of the early Christian movement, McFadden argues––a final judgment according to works. These are not contradictory observations but belong together in a cohesive understanding of Paul's theology and of his purpose in the letter.

Aspects of death and the afterlife are hotly debated among evangelical Christians. In this NSBT volume Paul Williamson works through Old and New Testament passages, taking care to understand the ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman backgrounds. Showing that there is exegetical support for the traditional evangelical understanding of death and the afterlife, he questions the growing popularity of alternative understandings.

Charts a new methodological course in Dead Sea Scrolls scholarship by employing memory theory to inform historical research. This is an instructive resource for scholars who are seeking an alternative to currently constructed approaches to the subject, and will be of appeal to those interested in the Dead Sea Scrolls more generally.