Logic as a subject includes the study of correct reasoning, especially as it involves the drawing of inferences. This book is concerned with the basic elements and problems of contemporary logic and provides the history of Logic and an overview of its different fields. Theorists have applied the rational choice approach to politics. In these fields it competes especially with explanations in terms of cultural, socialization and adherence to social norms. The theory of Logic and its various references explores possible ways of escaping from such dilemmas.

Ethos takes account of the character, sentiment, manners, moral nature, or guiding beliefs of a person, group, or institution and the predominant characteristics of a racial culture. In rhetoric, this is the speakers' or writer's character or emotions, articulated in the attempt to persuade an audience. Ethos is distinguished from pathos, which is the emotion the speaker or writer hopes to induce in the audience. The two concepts were well known in a broader sense by ancient Classical authors, who used pathos when referring to the violent emotions and ethos to mean the calmer ones. Ethology deals with the behaviour in a natural environment and investigates the development of systems of morals; now more generally, the science of human character. Ethology is particularly concerned with the animal's interactions with others of the same species and the function of behaviour and how the evolution of behaviour has been influenced by natural selection.

Followers of Stoicism offer for consideration various metaphysical systems, united chiefly by their ethical implications. All variants on the pantheistic theme that the world constitutes a single, organically unified and benevolent whole, in which apparent evil results only from our limited view. Their philosophy had at its core the beliefs that virtue is based on: Knowledge; Reason and Harmony. The changes of circumstances were viewed with evenness of mind: pleasure, pain, and even death were irrelevant to true happiness. In time, the idea that only the accomplished wise man (the philosopher) could attain virtue was challenged, and Stoicism became more relevant to the reality of politics and statesmen. The Stoic belief in the brotherhood of man helped philosophy to make a real impact in later Republican Rome; upon such men as the young Cato (whose suicide brought him a martyr's fame), Brutus, and Cicero. Its disciples included Seneca, tutor and adviser to Nero and the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

The philosophy of the mind deals with the examination of problems revolving around the concept of the mind. The mental may be distinguished from the physical in various ways: intentionality and consciousness provide important features of mental states. An important part of the argument is the claim that mental states are known in a special way: they are directly given, transparent to their owner and known infallibly. Monist and materialist believe that reality is physical and explained by natural science; sought in various ways to understand the mind in material terms. Behaviourism advocates that psychology should concern itself exclusively with observation of behaviour, disregarding introspection altogether. Others propose that mental states are the same as states of the brain. Dissatisfaction with these overly simple attempts to incorporate the mental into the physical realm led to the development of functionalism.

The application of technology and its integrations includes the scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to the change and manipulation of the human environment. Circa 3000 years BC many new technologies were developed; irrigation systems, road networks and wheeled vehicles, a pictographic form of writing and new building techniques. The new ideas and techniques engendered official persecution, but by the mid-17th century the tide of opinion had changed. By the late 17th century, technology essentially meant engineering. During the 19th century science began to create new technologies. This continued into the 20th century with the introduction of computing, Internet, Artificial Intelligence and other services made possible only because of further advances in science. In recent years Western aid has sought to develop appropriate technologies, using local materials and techniques, in partnership with the indigenous peoples.

The present volume assembles essays from a broad cultural and professional spectrum around the question of European cultural identity. The heterogeneity of the contributors -- their differing points of departure and methods -- attests to a tension in intellectual communities which today is more intense than ever. Europe's identity crisis is not merely an empirical matter. It reflects a far deeper, and far older, discursive crisis. The mandate of Europe's traditional intellectual institutions to preserve and police their own cultural heritage has proved incapable of evolving in a manner sufficient to account for the mutation in its object: European culture. It is not merely that Europe's identity, like any identity in the flux of history, has changed. Rather, the notion of identity, the very basis of any questions of who we are, where we are going, and the appropriate political forms and social institutions for further existence, all rely on a logic of identity which has, at best, become extremely problematic. It is this problematization which provides the common thread unifying the following essays. Each contributor, in his/her own way and with respect to his/her own research object, confronts the adequacy of the concept of cultural identity. The hidden presuppositions of this concept are indeed remarkable, and the logic of cultural identity prescribes that they remain undisclosed.

Over the last 10 years, political science has produced a vast amount of research on the impact of climate change and related existential disasters on existing political institutions. Hundreds of articles and books have been written on the environmental state, the green state, environmental governance, sustainable institutions and so on. However, no research in this field can prosper without a strong input from other disciplinary areas, particularly the natural sciences. Climate change is a complex and challenging set of interlinked events, phenomena and resulting problems and so it defies the usual disciplinary boundaries. The only way to progress and tackle these is by harnessing the entire apparatus of human knowledge and going beyond the frontiers of what we already know, while envisioning new scenarios and institutional forms.

Contemporary Feminist Pragmatismis an interdisciplinary collection of original essays that explores the present implications of feminism and pragmatism for theory, policy, and action. The notion of "feminist pragmatism" or "pragmatist feminism" has been around since Charlene Haddock Seigfried introduced it two decades ago, however the bulk of the work in this field has been directed toward recovering the feminist strain of classical American philosophy, largely through renewed interest in the work of Jane Addams. This exploration of the origins of feminism and pragmatism has been fruitful in providing a foundation for theoretical considerations. This book takes this work a step further by addressing the modern significance of the nexus of feminism and pragmatism, arguing that these fields hold three common commitments and values: the importance of context and experience, the relationship of politics and values and the production of knowledge and metaphysics, and the need for diversity and thus dialogue among differently situated social groups.