Bridges built before the early 1970s contain seismic vulnerabilities not accounted for in older design codes. Retrofitting with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) jackets is a commonly implemented strategy to address the seismic vulnerabilities present in previously constructed bridges. Previous research has not specifically studied behavior under Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ) demands. Six CFRP jacket retrofitted concrete bridge columns were designed, constructed, and tested under demands based on CSZ earthquakes. Five of the six test columns were nominally identical to previously tested steel jacket retrofitted columns to allow for comparison between the two retrofit methods. Detailed test results are provided. Strength degradation in five of the six columns was caused by fatigue fracture of longitudinal reinforcement. The sixth column underwent degradation due to plastic hinging above the jacket. Using experimental results, a model was developed to estimate the load-deformation response and fatigue fracture of longitudinal reinforcement in CFRP jacket retrofitted reinforced concrete column. The model was validated with test data. Single degree of freedom nonlinear time history analyses were conducted using the model. Site-specific Magnitude-9.0 Cascadia Subduction Zone simulated ground motions for western Washington State were used. Fragility relationships that provided the probability of lateral failure were developed for a practical range of bridge column parameters and bridge periods, strengths, and locations.

Research on seismic retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete (RC) bridge columns in the United States (U.S.) was motivated by damage observed following the 1971 San Fernando, 1989 Loma Prieta, and 1994 Northridge earthquakes of California. The research resulted in a retrofitting procedure that consisted of installing steel jackets around RC bridge columns to enhance the lateral deformation capacity. Although the research focused on the development of this retrofit strategy for bridge columns in California, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) implemented the program in 1991. Unlike the strike-slip faults in California, seismicity in western Washington is generally dominated by the Cascadia Subduction Zone fault. The 1964 Alaska, U.S., 2010 Maule, Chile and 2011 Tohoku, Japan are examples of mega-thrust long duration earthquakes emanating from a subduction zone fault and producing ground motions with longer durations of strong shaking than strike-slip faults. The research conducted in this study was motivated by the need to assess performance of the existing retrofit strategy when subjected to the expected demands of subduction zone earthquakes. The research conducted herein was an experimental study on the behavior of steel jacket retrofitted bridge columns subjected to demands from long duration earthquakes. Six reduced scale column specimens were designed, constructed, and tested as cantilevers. WSDOT's inventory was characterized to inform the values used for the column parameters, such that the six columns were intended to reasonably cover the range of values for critical parameters. Five of six tests utilized a modified fully reversed-cyclic lateral loading protocol to include additional cycles characteristic of long duration earthquakes. The sixth test used an earthquake protocol, obtained from the response of a single degree of freedom model to a synthetic Cascadia Subduction Zone ground motion in western Washington. Study results indicated stable drifts, including minimal pinching in the load-displacement response indicative of favorable hysteretic energy dissipation, at drifts in excess of the 4\\% expectation set forth in the steel jacket retrofit design guidelines. Total deformation was primarily a result of longitudinal reinforcement bond slip and elongation at the footing-column interface with strength degradation due to low-cycle fatigue fracture.

Performance of bridges during previous earthquakes has demonstrated that many structural failures could be attributed to seismic deficiencies in bridge columns. Lack of transverse reinforcement and inadequate splicing of longitudinal reinforcement in potential plastic hinge regions of columns constitute primary reasons for their poor performance. A number of column retrofit techniques have been developed and tested in the past. These techniques include steel jacketing, reinforced concrete jacketing and use of transverse prestressing (RetroBelt) for concrete confinement, shear strengthening and splice clamping. A new retrofit technique, involving fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) jacketing has emerged as a convenient and structurally sound alternative with improved durability. The new technique, although received acceptance in the construction industry, needs to be fully developed as a viable seismic retrofit methodology, supported by reliable design and construction procedures. The successful application of externally applied FRP jackets to existing columns, coupled with deteriorating bridge infrastructure, raised the possibility of using FRP reinforcement for new construction. Stay-in-place formwork, in the form of FRP tubes are being researched for its feasibility. The FRP stay-in-place tubes offer ease in construction, convenient formwork, and when left in place, the protection of concrete against environmental effects, including the protection of steel reinforcement against corrosion, while also serving as column transverse reinforcement. Combined experimental and analytical research was conducted in the current project to i) improve the performance of FRP column jacketing for existing bridge columns, and ii) to develop FRP stay-in-place formwork for new bridge columns. The experimental phase consisted of design, construction and testing of 7 full-scale reinforced concrete bridge columns under simulated seismic loading. The columns represented both existing seismically deficient bridge columns, and new columns in stay-in-place formwork. The existing columns were deficient in either shear, or flexure, where the flexural deficiencies stemmed from lack of concrete confinement and/or use of inadequately spliced longitudinal reinforcement. The test parameters included cross-sectional shape (circular or square), reinforcement splicing, column shear span for flexure and shear-dominant behaviour, FRP jacket thickness, as well as use of FRP tubes as stay-in-place formwork, with or without internally embedded FRP crossties. The columns were subjected to a constant axial compression and incrementally increasing inelastic deformation reversals. The results, presented and discussed in this thesis, indicate that the FRP retrofit methodology provides significant confinement to circular and square columns, improving column ductility substantially. The FRP jack also improved diagonal tension capacity of columns, changing brittle shear-dominant column behavior to ductile flexure dominant response. The jackets, when the transverse strains are controlled, are able to improve performance of inadequately spliced circular columns, while remain somewhat ineffective in improving the performance of spliced square columns. FRP stay-in-place formwork provides excellent ductility to circular and square columns in new concrete columns, offering tremendous potential for use in practice. The analytical phase of the project demonstrates that the current analytical techniques for column analysis can be used for columns with external FRP reinforcement, provided that appropriate material models are used for confined concrete, FRP composites and reinforcement steel. Plastic analysis for flexure, starting with sectional moment-curvature analysis and continuing into member analysis incorporating the formation of plastic hinging, provide excellent predictions of inelastic force-deformation envelopes of recorded hysteretic behaviour. A displacement based design procedure adapted to FRP jacketed columns, as well as columns in FRP stay-in-place formwork provide a reliable design procedure for both retrofitting existing columns and designing new FRP reinforced concrete columns.

The aftermath of the San Fernando, Whittier, and Loma Prieta slip-strike earthquakes in 1971, 1987, and 1989, respectively, showed the inadequacy of pre-1971 reinforced concrete bridge columns and led to extensive research in the United States on seismic retrofitting of these columns. Providing steel jackets around the columns was determined to be effective in increasing lateral deformation capacity under seismic demand. The jacket can confine the concrete, such that failure occurs due to fatigue fracture of longitudinal reinforcement. Previous research did not focus specifically on behavior under long-duration subduction zone earthquakes, which can increase the likelihood of fatigue fracture relative to strike-slip earthquakes. This study focuses on behavior under demands from both strike slip and long-duration earthquakes. In this research, an analytical model of a steel jacket retrofitted reinforced concrete bridge column was developed in OpenSEES. The model consisted of a linear elastic element for the jacketed portion of the column, a fiber section to capture plasticity at the gap between the bottom of the steel jacket and top of the footing, and zero-length bond slip elements at the column-footing interface and the bottom of the jacket. The OpenSEES model was used in combination with a fatigue model to predict the fatigue failure of the longitudinal reinforcement. The column model was validated using ten test columns. This included four columns with loading protocols more reflective of strike-slip earthquakes and six columns with loading protocols reflective of long duration demands.

This book gathers the latest research, innovations, and applications in the field of civil engineering, as presented by leading national and international academics, researchers, engineers, and postgraduate students at the AWAM International Conference on Civil Engineering 2019 (AICCE’19), held in Penang, Malaysia on August 21-22, 2019. The book covers highly diverse topics in the main fields of civil engineering, including structural and earthquake engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, highway and transportation engineering, water resources engineering, and geomatic and construction management. In line with the conference theme, “Transforming the Nation for a Sustainable Tomorrow”, which relates to the United Nations’ 17 Global Goals for Sustainable Development, it highlights important elements in the planning and development stages to establish design standards beneficial to the environment and its surroundings. The contributions introduce numerous exciting ideas that spur novel research directions and foster multidisciplinary collaborations between various specialists in the field of civil engineering.

This book addresses applications of earthquake engineering for both offshore and land-based structures. It is self-contained as a reference work and covers a wide range of topics, including topics related to engineering seismology, geotechnical earthquake engineering, structural engineering, as well as special contents dedicated to design philosophy, determination of ground motions, shock waves, tsunamis, earthquake damage, seismic response of offshore and arctic structures, spatial varied ground motions, simplified and advanced seismic analysis methods, sudden subsidence of offshore platforms, tank liquid impacts during earthquakes, seismic resistance of non-structural elements, and various types of mitigation measures, etc. The target readership includes professionals in offshore and civil engineering, officials and regulators, as well as researchers and students in this field.

First Published in 1999: The Bridge Engineering Handbook is a unique, comprehensive, and state-of-the-art reference work and resource book covering the major areas of bridge engineering with the theme "bridge to the 21st century."

"This CD-ROM consists of eight papers that were presented by ACI Committee 440 at the Spring Convention in Atlanta, GA, in April 2007"--Site Web de l'éditeur

Provides a three-tiered process for seismic evaluation of existing buildings in any level of seismicity. This standard is intended to serve as a nationally applicable tool for design professionals, code officials, and building owners looking to seismically evaluate existing buildings. It considers various aspects of building performance.