Women physicians in nineteenth-century America faced a unique challenge in gaining acceptance to the medical field as it began its transformation into a professional institution. The profession had begun to increasingly insist on masculine traits as signs of competency. Not only were these traits inaccessible to women according to nineteenth-century gender ideology, but showing competence as a medical professional was not enough. Whether women could or should be physicians hinged mostly on maintaining their femininity while displaying the newly established standard traits of successful practitioners of medicine. Women Physicians and Professional Ethos provides a unique example of how women influenced both popular and medical discourse. This volume is especially notable because it considers the work of African American and American Indian women professionals. Drawing on a range of books, articles, and speeches, Carolyn Skinner analyzes the rhetorical practices of nineteenth-century American women physicians. She redefines ethos in a way that reflects the persuasive efforts of women who claimed the authority and expertise of the physician with great difficulty. Descriptions of ethos have traditionally been based on masculine communication and behavior, leaving women’s rhetorical situations largely unaccounted for. Skinner’s feminist model considers the constraints imposed by material resources and social position, the reciprocity between speaker and audience, the effect of one rhetor’s choices on the options available to others, the connections between ethos and genre, the potential for ethos to be developed and used collectively by similarly situated people, and the role ethos plays in promoting social change. Extending recent theorizations of ethos as a spatial, ecological, and potentially communal concept, Skinneridentifies nineteenth-century women physicians’ rhetorical strategies and outlines a feminist model of ethos that gives readers a more nuanced understanding of how this mode of persuasion operates for all speakers and writers.

In the last decades of the nineteenth century, two thousand women physicians formed a significant and lively scientific community in the United States. Many were active writers; they participated in the development of medical record-keeping and research, and they wrote self-help books, social and political essays, fiction, and poetry. Out of the Dead House rediscovers the contributions these women made to the developing practice of medicine and to a community of women in science. Susan Wells combines studies of medical genres, such as the patient history or the diagnostic conversation, with discussions of individual writers. The women she discusses include Ann Preston, the first woman dean of a medical college; Hannah Longshore, a successful practitioner who combined conventional and homeopathic medicine; Rebecca Crumpler, the first African American woman physician to publish a medical book; and Mary Putnam Jacobi, writer of more than 180 medical articles and several important books. Wells shows how these women learned to write, what they wrote, and how these texts were read. Out of the Dead House also documents the ways that women doctors influenced medical discourse during the formation of the modern profession. They invented forms and strategies for medical research and writing, including methods of using survey information, taking patient histories, and telling case histories. Out of the Dead House adds a critical episode to the developing story of women as producers and critics of culture, including scientific culture.

This dissertation examines the ethical appeals used by nineteenth-century American women physicians in their rhetoric composed for public audiences. These texts represent a body of public, scientific, rhetorical activity by women, and so my analysis of them contributes to the identification and study of historic women's rhetorical work. Based in archival research methods, this project not only examines the texts written by women physicians, but also the texts surrounding them: book reviews, newspaper editorials, advertisements, and arguments for and against women physicians. Analyzing these texts in concert through the lens of ethos reveals not only the context in which women physicians engaged in rhetorical activity, but also the collective nature of women physicians' ethical appeals.

The irony of women's acceptance into the medical world, and the unfortunate decline in their status at the beginning of the twentieth-century, is illustrated in this volume through words and pictures. By focusing on the class of 1879 at the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, the authors of the various essays depict individual trials, frustrations, and victories of nineteenth-century women physicians; and we come to understand a vital aspect of our history and how it affects us all today.

When first published in 1985, Sympathy and Science was hailed as a groundbreaking study of women in medicine. It remains the most comprehensive history of American women physicians available. Tracing the participation of women in the medical profession from the colonial period to the present, Regina Morantz-Sanchez examines women's roles as nurses, midwives, and practitioners of folk medicine in early America; recounts their successful struggles in the nineteenth century to enter medical schools and found their own institutions and organizations; and follows female physicians into the twentieth century, exploring their efforts to sustain significant and rewarding professional lives without sacrificing the other privileges and opportunities of womanhood. In a new preface, the author surveys recent scholarship and comments on the changing world of women in medicine over the past two decades. Despite extraordinary advances, she concludes, women physicians continue to grapple with many of the issues that troubled their predecessors.

This dissertation argues that, by writing across the print culture of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, female physicians negotiated their ethos by representing themselves in ways more commensurate with their own experiences and contrary to existing representations. It draws on both literary and rhetorical traditions to analyze how writers addressed the incommensurability of print representations of women with the professional roles opened to them in the late nineteenth century - specifically, the medical profession. Though they were legally recognized as physicians in 1876, British women lacked the professional authority granted their male colleagues. Across the late Victorian and Edwardian periods, popular and professional discourses such as novels, short stories and professional journals often represented women as incompetent, weak, and unfit for professional work. As they undermined women's professional ethos - the public's and the profession's perceptions of their goodwill, good sense and good character, these representations damaged both public reception of female physicians and their ability to act as professionals. In chapters on war correspondence, women's medical magazines, serialized fiction, and New Woman novels, this dissertation traces the interventions of women physicians' supporters into conversations about women in the medical profession between 1876 and 1914. These alternative representations aided in establishing female physicians' ethos by positing new ways of thinking not only about medical women but also about the relationships between women, the professions and turn-of-the-century society.

From about 1850, American women physicians won gradual acceptance from male colleagues and the general public, primarily as caregivers to women and children. By 1920, they represented approximately five percent of the profession. But within a decade, their niche in American medicine--women's medical schools and medical societies, dispensaries for women and children, women's hospitals, and settlement house clinics--had declined. The steady increase of women entering medical schools also halted, a trend not reversed until the 1960s. Yet, as women's traditional niche in the profession disappeared, a vanguard of women doctors slowly opened new paths to professional advancement and public health advocacy. Drawing on rich archival sources and her own extensive interviews with women physicians, Ellen More shows how the Victorian ideal of balance influenced the practice of healing for women doctors in America over the past 150 years. She argues that the history of women practitioners throughout the twentieth century fulfills the expectations constructed within the Victorian culture of professionalism. Restoring the Balance demonstrates that women doctors--collectively and individually--sought to balance the distinctive interests and culture of women against the claims of disinterestedness, scientific objectivity, and specialization of modern medical professionalism. That goal, More writes, reaffirmed by each generation, lies at the heart of her central question: what does it mean to be a woman physician?

"This volume examines the wide-ranging careers and diverse lives of American women physicians, shedding light on their struggles for equality, professional accomplishment, and personal happiness over the past 150 years."--BOOK JACKET.

This work seeks to investigate how early women physicians in the United States reconciled and retained femininity while also earning professional authority. Chapter 1 investigates the general circumstances that led to the opening of the medical profession, allowing women the opportunity to participate in it. Chapter 2 engages with the rhetorical strategies used by women physicians to counter their detractors. Chapter 3 examines the motivations women had for entering the field and what they perceive the role of women in medicine to be. The third chapter also examines how use of professional authority was used to reframe gender and marginalized racial groups.

"[According to a survey of medical historians] the most important book of the past decade was William G. Rothstein's American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century."--Reviews in American History.