This book on reference systems is the first comprehensive review of the problem of celestial and terrestrial reference systems and frames. Over 20 years, the importance of this problem emerged slowly as the accuracy of new observational techniques improved. The topic has already been approached in several symposia such as Stresa (1967), Morioka (1971), Perth (1973), Columbus (1975, 1978 and 1985), Kiev (1977) and San Fernando (1978). Two IAU colloquia held in Turin (1974) and in Warsaw (1980) were exclusively devoted to discuss reference systems. During this time, the problem of terrestrial and celestial reference systems has been discussed also in many astronomical and geodetic symposia, but always among other topics. Thus, a review devoted solely to the definition and practical realization of such systems was needed. It is hoped that this book, containing modern comprehensive reviews of important facets of this problem will contribute not only to a better and wider understanding of the mathematics and the physics that are behind the concepts and the realizations, but also to future development in a field that can only expand with the rapidly increasing accuracy of geodetic and astronomical observations. We are pleased to thank all the authors of the book who have enthusiastically agreed to contribute to the book in their field of competence and have gracefully accepted guidance from the editors in the definition of the subject and of the interfaces with other chapters. We thank Prof. Y.

Over the past ten years, since the MERIT project began in 1980, great changes have taken place and significant advances made in the area of Earth Rotation and Coordinate Reference Frames. Symposium 105, held at the 125th Anniversary Meeting of the International Association of Geodesy, August 1989, was devoted to this subject. Major improvements in techniques, such as VLBI and laser ranging, have been accompanied by corresponding improvements in data-processing procedures and theories of relevant phenomena. The papers included in this volume provide both a comprehensive record of past discoveries and a sound basis for further advances. Section headings are as follows: - Earth Rotation: Determination and Prediction - Earth Rotation: Interpretation - Reference Frames

Published by the American Geophysical Union as part of the Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 59. As part of the Nineteenth General Assembly of The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics Symposium (IUGG) in Vancouver, Canada, Union Symposium U4, "Variations in Earth Rotation" was held August 18-19 1987. The Convenor was Dennis D. McCarthy, U.S. Naval Observatory with P. Paquet, Observatoire Royal de Belgique and M. G. Rochester, St. Johns University serving as co-convernors. In a session on internal structure of the Earth papers dealt with the geophysical effects on Earth rotation parameters. Mantle anelasticity increases the free core nutation (FCN) period by a few days. The period of the FCN and the amplitudes of the main nutation components are sensitive to the ellipticity of the core?]mantle boundary (CMB), and a non-hydrostatic increase of 400m in the flattening of the CMB is a possible explanation of the discrepancies from theory. An alternative suggestion rests on the subseismic description of the nutation spectrum of the stratified liquid core. Evidently new models will have to take into account contributions from the oceans, mantle anelasticity, non-hydrostatic pre-stress, CMB topography and internal core structure.

The Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS) has been established by the Int- national Association of Geodesy (IAG) in order to integrate the three fundamental areas of geodesy, so as to monitor geodetic parameters and their temporal varia- ?9 tions, in a global reference frame with a target relative accuracy of 10 or b- ter. These areas, often called ‘pillars’, deal with the determination and evolution of (a) the Earth’s geometry (topography, bathymetry, ice surface, sea level), (b) the Earth’s rotation and orientation (polar motion, rotation rate, nutation, etc. ), and (c) the Earth’s gravity eld (gravity, geoid). Therefore, Earth Observation on a global scale is at the heart of GGOS’s activities, which contributes to Global Change - search through the monitoring, as well as the modeling, of dynamic Earth processes such as, for example, mass and angular momentum exchanges, mass transport and ocean circulation, and changes in sea, land and ice surfaces. To achieve such an - bitious goal, GGOS relies on an integrated network of current and future terrestrial, airborne and satellite systems and technologies. These include: various positioning, navigation, remote sensing and dedicated gravity and altimetry satellite missions; global ground networks of VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS and absolute and relative gravity stations; and airborne gravity, mapping and remote sensing systems.

An analysis of the irregular rotation of the Earth and the geophysical mechanisms responsible for it.

Various effects of the atmosphere have to be considered in space geodesy and all of them are described and treated consistently in this textbook. Two chapters are concerned with ionospheric and tropospheric path delays of microwave and optical signals used by space geodetic techniques, such as the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), or Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR). It is explained how these effects are best reduced and modelled to improve the accuracy of space geodetic measurements. Other chapters are on the deformation of the Earth’s crust due to atmospheric loading, on atmospheric excitation of Earth rotation, and on atmospheric effects on gravity field measurements from special satellite missions such as CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE. All chapters have been written by staff members of the Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation at TU Wien who are experts in the particular fields.