This book explores tax arbitrage opportunities resulting from financial engineering techniques with cross-border financial instruments such as hybrids, synthetics, and non-traditional financial instruments. Firstly the author clarifies the concept of three kinds of complex financial instruments, and thereafter he discusses the most adequate tax treatment of these instruments in cross-border situations. For this purpose he identifies economic substance as an objective benchmark for the taxation of financial instruments to achieve greater international tax neutrality, and examines the role of the expected return taxation theory. The book also contains a comparative analysis of relevant developments in a number of jurisdictions, including Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Luxembourg, Portugal, UK and USA.

Financial innovation allows companies and other entities that wish to raise capital to choose from a myriad of possible instruments that can be tailored to meet the specific business needs of the issuer and investor. However, such instruments put increasing pressure on a question that is fundamental to the tax and financial systems of a country – the distinction between debt and equity. Focusing on hybrid financial instruments (HFIs) – which lie somewhere along the debt-equity continuum, but where exactly depends on the terms of the instrument as well as on applicable laws – this book analyses their treatment under both domestic law and tax treaties. Key jurisdictions, including the EU, some of its Member States, and the United States, are covered. Advocating for a broader scope of application of HFIs as part of the financing of companies in Europe alongside traditional sources of debt and equity financing, the book addresses such issues and topics as the following: • problems associated with the debt-equity distinction in international tax law; • cross-border tax arbitrage and linking rules; • drivers behind the use and design of HFIs; • tax law impact of perpetual and super maturity debt instruments, profit participating loans, convertible bonds, mandatory convertible bonds, contingent convertibles, preference shares and warrant loans on HFIs; • financial accounting treatment; • administrative guidance; • influence of the TFEU on Member States’ approaches to classification of HFIs; • interpretation of the Parent-Subsidiary Directive by the European Court of Justice; • applicability of the OECD Model Tax Convention; and • implications of the OECD Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project. Throughout this book, the analysis draws upon preparatory works, case law, and legal theory in English, German, and the Scandinavian languages. In conclusion, the author considers tax policy issues, and identifies and outlines possible high-level solutions. Actual or potential users of HFIs will greatly appreciate the clarity and insight offered here into the capacity and tax implications of HFIs. The book not only examines whether existing legislation is sufficient to handle the issues raised by international HFIs, but also provides an in-depth analysis of the interaction between corporate financing and tax law in the light of today’s financial innovation. Corporate executives and their counsel will find it indispensable in the international taxation landscape that is currently coming into view, and academics and policymakers will hugely augment their understanding of a complex and constantly changing area of tax law.

The permanent establishment (PE) is a legal form of cross-border direct investment whereby a business presence is maintained as an integral part of the foreign investor. Due to the growing intensity and complexity of international business relations, the PE defi¬nition and the allocation of profi¬ts between head units and PEs have become highly contentious, especially from the perspectives of the major emerging economies of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China). Unsurprisingly, the potential for tax avoidance and the scrutiny of tax authorities have increased enormously. Against this background, this work illustrates and compares the OECD Model Tax Convention with country-specifi¬c source taxation rules, focusing on possible tax system changes and offering reform proposals. Emphasizing the taxable implications of the various rules upon country-speci¬fic PE concepts, the author’s treatment covers such issues and topics as the following: – the PE de¬finition of the OECD MC and from the perspective of selected countries; – allocation of business pro¬fits under the Authorised OECD Approach (AOA); – avoidance of PE status; – implementation of a service PE proposal; – construction site PEs established by subcontractors; – existence of an agency PE; and – the OECD project on Base Erosion and Profi¬t Shifting (BEPS). The author uses simulated cross-border national and treaty cases to highlight qualifi¬cation conflicts, thus reinforcing his detailed discussion of source taxation rules of business profi¬ts and relevant case law in Germany, the United States, and the BRIC states. There is also a checklist detailing how companies can avoid unintentionally setting up a PE. The author’s deeply informed proposals provide much-needed guiding tax criteria and open the way to greater feasibility and transparency in PE taxation. Because the defi¬nition of PEs has enlarged and the treatment of profi¬t allocation has become more complex, the clari¬fication of the PE concept presented in this book is of inestimable importance for lawyers, of¬ficials, policymakers, and academics concerned with international business taxation in any jurisdiction.

In an age when cross-border business transactions are increasingly effected without the transference of physical products, revenue concerns of states have led to a multitude of tax disputes based on the concept of ‘nexus’. This important and timely book is the most authoritative to date to discuss one of the major tax topics of our time – the question of how taxing rights on income generated from cross-border activities in the digital age should be allocated among jurisdictions. Demonstrating in prodigious depth that it is the economic nexus of the tax entity or activity with the state, and not the physical nexus, which meets the jurisdictional requirement, the author – a leading authority on this area who is a Senior Commissioner of Income Tax and a Member of the Dispute Resolution Panel of the Government of India – addresses such dimensions of the subject as the following: whether a strict territorial nexus as a normative principle is ingrained in source rule jurisprudence; detailed scrutiny of such classical doctrines as benefit theory, neutrality theory, and internation equity; comparative critique of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and United Nation (UN) model tax treaties; whether international law and customary principles mandate a strict territorial link with the source state for the assumption of tax jurisdiction; whether the economic nexus-based tax jurisdiction and absence of a physical presence breach the constitutional doctrine of extraterritoriality or due process; and whether retrospective tax legislation breaches the principle of constitutional fairness. The book offers a politically informed analysis of the nexus principle and balances the dynamics of physical presence and economic nexus standards, based on an in-depth survey of the historical evolution of judicial pronouncements and international practices in this regard. Dr Singh’s book exposes an urgently needed missing link in the international source rule literature and takes a giant step towards solving the thorny question of appropriate tax apportionment. It sheds brilliant light on the policies states may adopt when signing new tax treaties, so that unintended results may be foreseen and avoided. Tax practitioners, taxation authorities, and academic researchers in the field of international tax law and policy will greatly appreciate the book’s forthright enhancement of the ability to defend challenges based on the nexus doctrine.

Hybrid Financial Instruments, Double Non-taxation and Linking Rules Félix Daniel Martínez Laguna Hybrid financial instruments (HFIs) are widespread ordinary financial instruments that combine debt and equity features in their terms and design and may lead to double non-taxation across borders. This important book provides a deeply informed and critical analysis and guide to the “linking rules” developed to combat double non-taxation stemming from HFIs within the framework of the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting project of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the anti-avoidance initiatives of the European Union (EU). These complex rules have now become essential in international taxation. The book deals incisively with crucial theoretical and practical issues as the following: Economic and legal reasons for financing business activity through debt instruments, equity instruments and/or HFIs. Qualification of financial instruments from different perspectives such as economics, corporate finance, corporate law, financial accounting law, regulatory law and tax law and their interrelation. The concept of double non-taxation as a mere outcome of parallel exercises of sovereignty by different states and the role it plays within the international debate. The concepts of tax planning, tax avoidance and the misleading concept of aggressive tax planning within a tax competition international scenario and their relation with HFIs. Comprehensive policy, legal and technical detail and explanation of the linking rules proposed by the OECD (i.e., BEPS Project Action 2) and the EU (e.g., Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive). The (in)compatibility of linking rules with existing tax treaty rules and EU primary law. The author refers throughout to relevant model convention provisions, EU case law and a vast number of references of official documentation and literature. With its detailed attention to the concept and legal nature of HFIs and double non-taxation, the critical and comprehensive analysis of the linking rules developed by the OECD and the EU, this provocative book allows to reconsider the legality of these linking rules and will quickly become a much-used problem-solving resource for policymakers, tax practitioners, tax authorities and tax academics. This book allows to rethink whether linking rules relate to a solution or create actual legal issues.

Series on International Taxation, Volume 82 The economic value of China’s mergers and acquisitions (M&A) market is exceeded only by that of the United States. However, China’s rapid and somewhat chaotic economic transformation has made the task of taxing M&A transactions in a consistent and prudent manner difficult, leading to a patchwork of fragmented rules that are hard to grasp not only for taxpayers but even for tax professionals and tax officials. Responding to this complex situation, this groundbreaking book explores in detail how income derived from M&A transactions is taxed in China. Using empirical studies in order to provide a first-hand understanding of the context in which the tax law operates, the book critically examines China’s income tax regime for M&A and, based upon this examination, sets out reform proposals. In six informative chapters of great practical relevance, the author thoroughly describes and explains the intersection of such aspects as the following: M&A transactions in the eyes of tax law; disparities between ordinary and special tax treatment; eligibility for special tax treatment; applying taxation principles such as neutrality and equity; continuity of interest doctrine; stock acquisition versus asset acquisition; and adjustment to tax basis. In addition to its empirical research, the analysis makes use of an examination of the rules and theories on taxing M&A in other jurisdictions such as Australia and the United States as part of its proposed blueprint for improving China’s M&A taxation. Drawing on commonly recognized taxation principles, this book definitively sets up the normative criteria for evaluating the income taxation of M&A and reveals the fundamental problems encountered by China’s current regime. Its comprehensive analysis of the Chinese income tax rules for M&A and detailed disclosure of how they are both divergent from and convergent with that of some other major economies will prove of immeasurable value to in-house counsel for multinational corporations, business enterprises with interests in China, taxation consultants, taxation academics, and taxation authorities worldwide.

The Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (MLI) is the most forceful multilateral initiative to coordinate tax regimes on a worldwide basis since the dawn of modern income taxation over a century ago. This book evaluates two radically opposed viewpoints on the convention—a momentous and revolutionary paradigm shift versus a mechanism that merely continues an ongoing flow of limited policy coordination—with detailed investigations that bring to life the hopes and the realities of the current era of multilateral tax cooperation. Bringing together authors from national jurisdictions across the globe to scrutinize the MLI and its likely future ramifications, the book provides in-depth commentary and analysis in the following sequence: first, a comprehensive discussion of the design and goals of the MLI as a treaty and an institutional framework; second, an overview of the structure of the convention and its take-up across the globe to date; and third, the substantive implementation of the MLI with a wide range of country reports. Practice areas covered include tax law, international law, and international relations. The legal workings and implications of the MLI might still seem mysterious to those whose daily work is impacted by it, and there is as yet little jurisprudence regarding its legal nature or ultimate effect on the bilateral treaties coming within its scope. For these reasons, this pathbreaking book will be warmly welcomed by in-house counsel and law firms advising cross-border investors and firms; nongovernmental organizations involved in policy analysis and issue advocacy; researchers working on technical areas of international tax law; and lawyers interested in international policymaking, including the creation and diffusion of consensus-based fiscal and related regulatory norms across jurisdictions of differing development levels.

The power of a country to freely design its tax system is generally understood to be an integral feature of sovereignty. However, as an inevitable result of globalization and income mobility, one country’s exercise of tax sovereignty often overlaps, interferes with, or even impedes that of another. In this collection of essays, internationally respected practitioners and academics reveal how the OECD’s Base Erosion and Pro t Shifting (BEPS) initiative, although a major step in the right direction, is insuf cient to resolve the tax sovereignty paradox. Each contribution deals with different facets of a single topic: How tax sovereignty is shaped in a post ,BEPS world. The contributors provide in ,depth analysis of such relevant issues as the following: hy multilateral cooperation and soft law consensus are the preferred solutions to a loss of autonomy over national tax policy; – how digital commerce has upended traditional notions of source and residence; – why residence and source continue to be the two essential building blocks of tax sovereignty and the backbone of the international tax system; – how developing countries can take advantage of the new international tax architecture to ensure that their voices are truly shaping the standards; and – transfer pricing reform. Collectively, the authors provide an authoritative commentary on the necessary preconditions for exercising the power to tax in today’s world. Their perspectives and recommendations will prove of great value to all policymakers, legislators, practitioners, and academics in the international taxation arena.

The distribution of profits between corporations resident in different jurisdictions gives rise to both significant tax planning opportunities and tax risks. As cross-border transactions between corporations grow in number and complexity, the question of how a profit distribution is classified for corporate income tax purposes becomes increasingly important, particularly in the context of issues such as double taxation, non-taxation and tax neutrality. The OECD BEPS project has only increased the relevance. This unique work discusses the international tax law rules determining which transactions may be classified and taxed as dividends and how possible classification conflicts may be resolved. The author examines the tax classification of various inter-corporate transactions, including: – Payments made under dividend-stripping arrangements. – Fictitious profit distributions. – Economic benefits in the context of transfer pricing. – Returns on debt-equity hybrids. – Interest payments in thin capitalization situations and distributions following liquidation. The analysis of each transaction refers to international tax law. Most weight is given to tax treaties and EU tax law, including the BEPS development. The approaches adopted in different states’ national tax law are covered by a more general analysis. The comprehensive coverage and the practical nature of The International Tax Law Concept of Dividend make it an essential acquisition for tax practitioners, researchers and tax libraries worldwide.

The topics of double non-taxation and hybrid entities have acquired particular importance in a context where transformations in the tax world have led to international commitments materialised in the OECD Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project. In what is the first systematic in-depth analysis of the OECD BEPS Action Plan 2 and hybrid entities, this timely book provides a critical review of the approach adopted by the OECD and proposes a deeply informed alternative method to deal with the problem of hybrid entity mismatches. The author analyses the interaction between the double non-taxation outcome and the use of hybrid entities in an approach not strictly linked to any specific tax jurisdiction. To this end, the analysis includes case studies and examples from a range of jurisdictions emphasising the international tax context, also including the application of tax treaties. Among the seminal matters covered in this edition are the following: foundations of the concepts of double non-taxation and hybrid entities; extensive analysis based on the rules of characterisation of foreign entities for tax purposes in the United States, Spain, Denmark, and Germany, as well as on the Poland/United States and Canada/United States tax treaties; in-depth analysis of the implications of Article 1(2) OECD Model Tax Convention and Article 3(1) Multilateral Instrument (MLI), especially considering the position of developing (source) countries; detailed analysis of the OECD BEPS Action 2 and its recommendations (linking rules), including its implementation in the EU Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive (ATAD); and elaborated alternative method to deal with hybrid entity mismatches (reactive coordination rule), which is informed by the tax policy aims of simplicity, coherence, and administrability. Detailed comparisons between the author’s proposal and other existing rules elucidate common points and deviations. If merely for its unparalleled clarification of the issues, this book will prove of immeasurable value to practitioners, tax authorities, policymakers and academics concerned with international tax law. Beyond that, as an authoritative guide that promises to reorient the discussion to what really matters in the debate regarding hybrid entity mismatches, this analysis elaborates solutions applicable to a generality of cases worldwide and, therefore, hugely promotes the urgent quest for alternative views.