Reductionism is a widely endorsed methodology among biologists, a metaphysical theory advanced to vindicate the biologist's methodology, and an epistemic thesis those opposed to reductionism have been eager to refute. While the methodology has gone from strength to strength in its history of achievements, the metaphysical thesis grounding it remained controversial despite its significant changes over the last 75 years of the philosophy of science. Meanwhile, antireductionism about biology, and especially Darwinian natural selection, became orthodoxy in philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and philosophy of biology. This Element expounds the debate about reductionism in biology, from the work of the post-positivists to the end of the century debates about supervenience, multiple realizability, and explanatory exclusion. It shows how the more widely accepted 21st century doctrine of 'mechanism' - reductionism with a human face - inherits both the strengths and the challenges of the view it has largely supplanted.

This volume addresses fundamental issues in the philosophy of science in the context of two most intriguing fields: biology and economics. Written by authorities and experts in the philosophy of biology and economics, Mechanism and Causality in Biology and Economics provides a structured study of the concepts of mechanism and causality in these disciplines and draws careful juxtapositions between philosophical apparatus and scientific practice. By exploring the issues that are most salient to the contemporary philosophies of biology and economics and by presenting comparative analyses, the book serves as a platform not only for gaining mutual understanding between scientists and philosophers of the life sciences and those of the social sciences, but also for sharing interdisciplinary research that combines both philosophical concepts in both fields. The book begins by defining the concepts of mechanism and causality in biology and economics, respectively. The second and third parts investigate philosophical perspectives of various causal and mechanistic issues in scientific practice in the two fields. These two sections include chapters on causal issues in the theory of evolution; experiments and scientific discovery; representation of causal relations and mechanism by models in economics. The concluding section presents interdisciplinary studies of various topics concerning extrapolation of life sciences and social sciences, including chapters on the philosophical investigation of conjoining biological and economic analyses with, respectively, demography, medicine and sociology.

Combustion has played a central role in the development of our civilization which it maintains today as its predominant source of energy. The aim of this book is to provide an understanding of both fundamental and applied aspects of low-temperature combustion chemistry and autoignition. The topic is rooted in classical observational science and has grown, through an increasing understanding of the linkage of the phenomenology to coupled chemical reactions, to quite profound advances in the chemical kinetics of both complex and elementary reactions. The driving force has been both the intrinsic interest of an old and intriguing phenomenon and the centrality of its applications to our economic prosperity. The volume provides a coherent view of the subject while, at the same time, each chapter is self-contained.

The Cloud Cover Satellite flown in Vanguard vehicles SLV-3 and SLV-4 required a spin rate of 55 r.p.m. when entering orbit. Since the third-stage rocket was spin-stabilized in flight, and because other considerations required that the satellite remain attached long enough to acquire more than the desired 55 r.p.m., a satellite spin-reduction mechanism was developed. Although the mechanisms functioned properly in both flights, the desired spin rate was not achieved owing to uncontrollable flight effects. These effects make the prediction of satellite spin rates after a long pre-separation coasting period extremely difficult. To meet future requirements a control system is needed which can orient a payload according to a predetermined scheme and maintain that orientation for the desired period.

A panel of recognized authorities comprehensively review the medical, surgical, and pathophysiologic issues relevant to lung volume reduction surgery for emphysema. Topics range from the open technique and video-assisted thoracoscopic approaches to LVRS, to anesthetic management, to perioperative and nursing care of the patient. The experts also detail the selection of candidates for LVRS, the clinical results and clinical trials in LVRS, and the effects of LVRS on survival rates.

Transport and Transformation of Contaminants Near the Sediment-Water Interface addresses the issue of contaminated bottom sediments and their potential adverse impacts on water quality. This state-of-the-science book covers regulatory management perspectives, physical processes, chemical and biological processes, and process synthesis/modeling. Specific topics discussed include EPA's Sediment Quality Criteria program from a regulatory perspective; flocculation, deposition, and resuspension of fine-grained sediments; approaches for measuring vertical sediment flux near the sediment-water interface; equilibrium models for metal speciation in natural sediments; the partitioning of organic chemicals in bottom sediments; and the development and application of models of sediment and associated contaminant transport in surface waters. The significance of recent studies suggesting that interaction of contaminated bottom sediments with the overlying water play an important role in the long-term recovery of aquatic systems makes Transport and Transformation of Contaminants Near the Sediment-Water Interface essential for water quality engineers, environmental chemists, and environmental toxicologists. The volume provides important information for consultants, regulators, researchers, and graduate students as well.

An accessible and step-by-step exploration of organic reaction mechanisms In Reaction Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry, eminent researcher Dr. Metin Balcı explains organic reaction mechanisms step-by-step. The book offers a way for undergraduate and graduate students to understand—rather than memorize—the principles of reaction mechanisms. It includes the most important reaction types, including substitution, elimination, addition, pericyclic, and C-C coupling reactions. Each chapter contains problems and accompanying solutions that cover central concepts in organic chemistry. Students will learn to understand the foundational nature of ideas like Lewis acids and bases, electron density, the mesomeric effect, and the inductive effect via the use of detailed examples and an expansive discussion of the concept of hybridization. Along with sections covering aromaticity and the chemistry of intermediates, the book includes: A thorough introduction to basic concepts in organic reactions, including covalent bonding, hybridization, electrophiles and nucleophiles, and inductive and mesomeric effects Comprehensive explorations of nucleophilic substitution reactions, including optical activity and stereochemistry of SN2 reactions Practical discussions of elimination reactions, including halogene elimination and Hofmann elimination In-depth examinations of addition reactions, including the addition of water to alkenes and the epoxidation of alkenes Perfect for students of chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacy, Reaction Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry will also earn a place in the libraries of researchers and lecturers in these fields seeking a one-stop resource on organic reaction mechanisms.

The availability of large data sets have allowed researchers to uncover complex properties such as large scale fluctuations and heterogeneities in many networks which have lead to the breakdown of standard theoretical frameworks and models. Until recently these systems were considered as haphazard sets of points and connections. Recent advances have generated a vigorous research effort in understanding the effect of complex connectivity patterns on dynamical phenomena. For example, a vast number of everyday systems, from the brain to ecosystems, power grids and the Internet, can be represented as large complex networks. This new and recent account presents a comprehensive explanation of these effects.

From the beginning of chemistry as an exact (natural) science - almost 200 years ago - there was a more or less distinct differentiation between its various branches such as organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, or biochemistry. With the increasing insight into the connections and governing laws it soon became obvious, however, that such a clear separation could be regarded as more or less obsolete; within almost any field of chemical research one has to deal with most of the branches mentioned. Especially organic and inorganic chemistry are significant examples for this statement, overlapping considerably within the important field of organome tallic chemistry. This regime of chemistry started its advance with the discovery of dimethylzinc 150 years ago, had a highlight with the introduction of Grignard reagents around 1900, developed further with the start of lithium organyls in 1925 and literally exploded after the discovery of the first transition metal cyclopenta dienyl complex ferrocene half a century ago. The chronological sequence of the important steps, i. e. 1850 (Zn) - 1900 (Mg) - 1925 (Li) - 1950 (Fe), seems rather remarkable. The increasing group of metallocenes is not only of high theoretical and, due to the potential chirality of its members, stereochemical interest, but offers also a wide variety of extremely useful catalysts, especially for stereoselective reactions. The Austrian Chemical Society took this development into account by organizing the Twelfth International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry held in Vienna in 1985.