Cryogenic technologies promise to overcome existing bottlenecks in a range of science and engineering fields including quantum computing, high performance computing and single-photon communication systems. As these technologies mature and systems scale, a readout solution for high speed, low power data transfer between the cryogenic environment and room temperature becomes essential. The use of optical links for such data transfer - in what is known as cryogenic optical readout - is appealing due to the low heat conduction of optical fiber and the possibility to exploit wavelength division multiplexing architectures. However, existing demonstrations suffer from large power dissipation associated with amplifying the millivolt signals generated by the cryogenic systems. This thesis deals with the development of silicon photonic modulators operating at cryogenic temperatures and capable of modulating an optical carrier with millivol-level driving signals. We show cryogenic operation of CMOS photonic resonant modulators in the forward bias regime with high modulation efficiency and reduced power dissipation, and demonstrate cryogenic optical readout of a superconducting single photon detector. We also present a new operation mode for optical modulators that leverages parasitic photocurrent to achieve electrical gain and reduce power dissipation. Modulation with signal levels down to 4 mVpp and electrical power dissipation in the zJ/bit range is demonstrated. This thesis sets the foundation for silicon photonics to realize scalable, low power, high throughput cryogenic readout, addressing one of the key remaining challenges for the wide adoption of cryogenic technologies.

"Global internet traffic has been growing exponentially in the past several years. This increase is fueled by video streaming services (e.g. Netflix, YouTube), cloud-based storages (e.g. Dropbox, google drive), and machine-to-machine (e.g. Internet of Things) applications. Since 2008 most Internet traffic has originated or been terminated in datacenters and the datacenter traffic is forecasted to grow three-fold in the next five years to reach 20.6 zettabytes by 2021. On-Off-Keying (OOK) has been the main modulation format employed in short reach optical interconnects. The simplicity of the transmitter and receiver architectures have been an important factor in the success of OOK for short reach optical links. Recently deployed, 100 Gb/s systems utilize OOK modulation in 4 × 25 Gb/s configuration. However, as we move towards 400 Gb/s and 1 Tb/s systems, OOK requires a proportional increase in the bandwidth. Hence, a more efficient modulation format is required to avoid such complexity. Silicon photonics (SiP) has recently become a popular choice for datacenter interconnects. Taking advantage of years of complementary metal oxide semiconductor research and development, SiP provides a low cost and high yield platform for datacenter optical interconnects. In this thesis, 3 different SiP Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM) structures to generate higher order modulation formats are presented. First, the feasibility of utilizing coherent transmission systems as opposed to intensity modulation/direct detection systems for 400 Gb/s and 1 Tb/s systems are discussed and an Inphase-Quadrature modulator is presented. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using coherent systems for short reach applications. Next, we investigate and compare the performance advantages of generating 4-level Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM-4) using various structures of MZM optically, instead of generating PAM-4 in the electrical domain using digital to analog convertors (DACs) for 400 Gb/s systems. The two variants of optical-DACs are a Dual Parallel Mach-Zehnder modulator (DP-MZM) with one series push pull travelling wave MZM on each arm and a single MZM having two electrodes in series that we name Multi-Electrode MZM (ME-MZM). We present the optical design of the modulators and investigate the effects of non-linearities of the MZM transfer function and PN junction phase-shifters on performance of the PAM-4 generation. Then, the DC, small signal and large signal characterization of each modulator are presented. We parametrically examine the transmission performance of each modulator and present an optimized modulator design for optical generation and transmission of 112 Gb/s PAM-4 without using digital signal processing." --

While optical communications are the standard solution for long haul communications, its adoption for short range (i.e, intra- and inter-chip interconnects and metro-area) transmission systems, where a considerable increase in data rates and a decrease in power consumption is to be gained, has been hampered mainly because the high cost associated to the fabrication of discrete optical components. The integration of photonic components in a single substrate, in what is known as silicon photonics, arises as a promising solution to overcome this limitation. Specifically, zero change CMOS silicon photonics, in which photonic components are fabricated in state of the art commercial microelectronic foundries without any change in the fabrication flow, therefore not modifying the transistor yield, enables the monolithic integration of electronics and photonics at a very low cost. Nevertheless, this comes at an expense in the control of the fabrication process and, as such, in the performance of the devices. It is of paramount importance, then, to carefully design, model and optimize these photonic components and test them experimentally. It is the object of this thesis to do so for one of the photonic components necessary for optical communications: modulators. To avoid high optical losses and achieve high optical confinement, the whispering gallery modes of silicon rings (with radii in the order of um) are exploited, and effective modulation is achieved by changing the carrier density in the silicon by means of pn junctions. In this thesis, high speed (25 Gbps) modulation at a working wavelength of 1550 nm is reported for the first time in a zero-change CMOS platform, and it is also demonstrated that this photonics platform can be readily used for low temperature (4 K) applications. A complete model of a silicon microring modulator that includes nonlinear effects (which can have an important detrimental effect in the device performance) is also derived, and from it power handling capabilities of these modulators are determined. By realizing high-speed an efficient optical modulators at the telecommunications wave- length, the potential of these CMOS photonics platform for addressing the future demands in the telecom and datacom systems by the fabrication of high scale electronic-photonic systems has been unveiled.

This book presents a comprehensive review of the most important methods used in the characterisation of piezoelectric, ferroelectric and pyroelectric materials. It covers techniques for the analysis of bulk materials and thick and thin film materials and devices. There is a growing demand by industry to adapt and integrate piezoelectric materials into ever smaller devices and structures. Such applications development requires the joint development of reliable, robust, accurate and – most importantly – relevant and applicable measurement and characterisation methods and models. In the past few years there has been a rapid development of new techniques to model and measure the variety of properties that are deemed important for applications development engineers and scientists. The book has been written by the leaders in the field and many chapters represent established measurement best practice, with a strong emphasis on application of the methods via worked examples and detailed experimental procedural descriptions. Each chapter contains numerous diagrams, images, and measurement data, all of which are fully referenced and indexed. The book is intended to occupy space in the research or technical lab, and will be a valuable and practical resource for students, materials scientists, engineers, and lab technicians.

Electronic Inventions and Discoveries: Electronics from Its Earliest Beginnings to the Present Day provides a summary of the development of the whole field of electronics. Organized into 13 chapters, the book covers and reviews the history of electronics as a whole and its aspects. The opening chapter covers the beginnings of electronics, while the next chapter discusses the development of components, transistors, and integrated circuits. The third chapter tackles the expansion of electronics and its effects on industry. The succeeding chapters discuss the history of the aspects of electronics, such as audio and sound reproduction, radio and telecommunications, radar, television, computers, robotics, information technology, and industrial and other applications. Chapter 10 provides a lists of electronic inventions according to subject, while Chapter 11 provides a concise description of each invention by date order. Chapter 12 enumerates the inventors of electronic devices. The last chapter provides a list of books about inventions and inventors. This book will appeal to readers who are curious about the development of electronics throughout history.

The acquisition and interpretation of images is a central capability in almost all scientific and technological domains. In particular, the acquisition of electromagnetic radiation, in the form of visible light, UV, infrared, X-ray, etc. is of enormous practical importance. The ultimate sensitivity in electronic imaging is the detection of individual photons. With this book, the first comprehensive review of all aspects of single-photon electronic imaging has been created. Topics include theoretical basics, semiconductor fabrication, single-photon detection principles, imager design and applications of different spectral domains. Today, the solid-state fabrication capabilities for several types of image sensors has advanced to a point, where uncoooled single-photon electronic imaging will soon become a consumer product. This book is giving a specialist ́s view from different domains to the forthcoming “single-photon imaging” revolution. The various aspects of single-photon imaging are treated by internationally renowned, leading scientists and technologists who have all pioneered their respective fields.

Many of the devices and systems used in modern industry are becoming progressively smaller and have reached the nanoscale domain. Nanofabrication aims at building nanoscale structures, which can act as components, devices, or systems, in large quantities at potentially low cost. Nanofabrication is vital to all nanotechnology fields, especially for the realization of nanotechnology that involves the traditional areas across engineering and science. This is the first book solely dedicated to the manufacturing technology in nanoscale structures, devices, and systems and is designed to satisfy the growing demands of researchers, professionals, and graduate students. Both conventional and non-conventional fabrication technologies are introduced with emphasis on multidisciplinary principles, methodologies, and practical applications. While conventional technologies consider the emerging techniques developed for next generation lithography, non-conventional techniques include scanning probe microscopy lithography, self-assembly, and imprint lithography, as well as techniques specifically developed for making carbon tubes and molecular circuits and devices. Sample Chapter(s). Chapter 1: Atom, Molecule, and Nanocluster Manipulations for Nanostructure Fabrication Using Scanning Probe Microscopy (3,320 KB). Contents: Atomic Force Microscope Lithography (N Kawasegi et al.); Nanowire Assembly and Integration (Z Gu & D H Gracias); Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (H Kinoshita); Electron Projection Lithography (T Miura et al.); Electron Beam Direct Writing (K Yamazaki); Electron Beam Induced Deposition (K Mitsuishi); Focused Ion Beams and Interaction with Solids (T Ishitani et al.); Nanofabrication of Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS): Emerging Techniques (K L Ekinci & J Brugger); and other papers. Readership: Researchers, professionals, and graduate students in the fields of nanoengineering and nanoscience.

In recent years, ion implantation has developed into the major doping technique for integrated circuits. Several series of conferences have dealt with the application of ion implantation to semiconductors and other materials (Thousand Oaks 1970, Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1971, Osaka 1974, Warwick 1975, Boulder 1976, Budapest 1978, and Albany 1980). Another series of conferences was devoted more to implantation equipment and tech niques (Salford 1977, Trento 1978, and Kingston 1980). In connection with the Third International Conference on Ion Implantation: Equipment and Tech niques, held at Queen's University, ' Kingston, Ontario, Canada, July 8-11, 1980, a two-day instructional program was organized parallel to an implan tation conference for the first time. This implantation school concentra ted on aspects of implantation-equipment design. This book contains all lectures presented at the International Ion Implantation School organized in connection with the Fourth International Conference on Ion Implantation: Equipment and Techniques, held at the Convention Center, Berchtesgaden, Germany, September 13-17, 1982. In con trast to the first .school, the main emphasis in thiS school was placed on practical aspects of implanter operation and application. In three chap ters, various machine aspects of ion implantation (general concepts, ion sources, safety, calibration, dOSimetry), range distributions (stopping power, range profiles), and measuring techniques (electrical and nonelec tri ca 1 measu ri ng techni ques, annea 1 i ng) are di scussed. In the appendi x, a review of the state of the art in modern implantation equipment is given.

This book is based on the 18 tutorials presented during the 28th workshop on Advances in Analog Circuit Design. Expert designers present readers with information about a variety of topics at the frontier of analog circuit design, including next-generation analog-to-digital converters , high-performance power management systems and technology considerations for advanced IC design. For anyone involved in analog circuit research and development, this book will be a valuable summary of the state-of-the-art in these areas. Provides a summary of the state-of-the-art in analog circuit design, written by experts from industry and academia; Presents material in a tutorial-based format; Includes coverage of next-generation analog-to-digital converters, high-performance power management systems, and technology considerations for advanced IC design.

The use of microwaves has gradually democratized itself in several scientific areas and is now a common methodology in domains as different as chemistry, protein digestion, mining, and metallurgy. Materials chemistry is one field where microwave irradiation technologies are being studied. In recent years, development of nanotechnologies has increas