Leonard Woolley, an archaeologist from Britain, returned to Iraq in 1922, almost 4,000 years after the nuclear ancient catastrophe, to uncover ancient Mesopotamia.An imposing ziggurat standing out in the desert plain drew him to the nearby site of Tell el-Muqayyar, where he began excavating. As old walls, artifacts, and inscriptions were unearthed, he realized he was digging up ancient Ur-Ur of the Chaldees. Twelve years of his work were conducted through a joint expedition between the British Museum in London and the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia. For those institutions, Sir Leonard Woolley found some of the most dramatic objects and artifacts in Ur. However, what he discovered may well surpass anything ever exhibited before. In the course of removing layers of soil deposited by desert sands, the elements, and time from the ruins, the ancient city began to take shape-here were the walls, there were the harbors and canals, the residential quarters, the palace, and the Tummal, the elevated sacred area. Woolley's discovery of a cemetery dated thousands of years ago included unique 'royal' tombs discovered by digging at its edge is the find of the century. The excavations in the city's residential sections established that Ur's inhabitants followed the Sumerian custom of burying their dead right under the floors of their dwellings, where families continued to live. It was thus highly unusual to find a cemetery with as many as 1,800 graves in it. From predynastic (before Kingship began) to Seleucid times, they were concentrated mainly within the sacred precinct. The graves were buried on top of each other, burials were interred in another grave, and some graves were apparently re-interred. To date graves more accurately, Woolley's workers dug trenches of up to fifty feet deep to cut through layers.

The earliest history of Babylon is little known. Among the many cities flourishing in southern Iraq, the town first appears in texts in the third millennium BC. Until the last century of the third millennium, few references existed to Babylon; however, offerings made to the temple of Enlil in Nippur during this period (when Babylon was part of an empire ruled by Ur) suggest a city already of some size and wealth. From relative obscurity in the middle of the 18th century BC, Babylon emerged as the political center of southern Mesopotamia. It held this position almost continuously for the next 1,400 years. Near Baghdad, around 85 kilometers south of the Euphrates, is the site of Babylon. The area is located north of the great alluvial plain of southern Iraq, a landscape of silts deposited by the Tigris and Euphrates into a vast rift created by tectonic movement as the Arabian plate slips beneath the neighboring Eurasian plate. In addition to defining modern-day Iraq's northern and eastern boundaries, the Taurus and Zagros mountain ranges were created by the same collision. As a result, Mesopotamia encompasses several environmental zones, but Babylon itself is found in the flat alluvial plain in southern Iraq. In addition to containing one of the world's earliest cities3, the table is subject to several significant environmental constraints that have shaped human settlements since long before the foundation of Babylon. Rain-fed agriculture is beyond the reach of this area due to its high temperatures. Despite the little precipitation this part of Iraq receives, it is uneven and unreliable: the bulk of a season's rain can fall in a single downpour, damaging crops as severe droughts.4 Human habitation is dependent on the two great rivers, and the permanent settlement requires irrigation. Upon establishment, However, on the levees of canals, such a system could benefit from the rich alluvial soils and support highly productive agriculture. In explaining the region's early urbanization and accompanying economic development, many contend that the region's ability to produce large agricultural surpluses played a significant role, though in what way is hotly contested. Herodotus was undoubtedly impressed. As a grain-bearing country, Assyria [meaning Mesopotamia] is the richest globally, he writes in his description of the fifth century BC. Figs, grapes, olives, or other fruit trees are not grown there, but the grain fields tend to produce crops two hundredfold and three hundredfold in exceptional years. At least three inches wide are the wheat and barley blades. Millet and sesame grow to an astonishing size, as I know, but those who have not visited Babylon have refused to believe even what I have already described as its fertility. Sesame oil is the only oil they use, and date palms, most of which bear fruit, provide them with food, wine, and honey.

The Sumerians are today's wonder of the day and another incredible ancient society. Ancient Sumer, a group of city-states, was in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians invented arithmetic geometry, writing, and armies. Furthermore, their publications educate readers about Sumerian culture today. The Sumerian civilization flourished between 4100 and 1750 B.C. "Sumer" was named after the "land of cultured rulers." Sumer was one of the earliest to divide the day into hours and minutes. They also had a sophisticated religion centered on gods known as the Anunnaki. The Sumerians' destiny was thought to be in the hands of the Anunnaki. The Anunnaki were often depicted in myths as judging humankind. The gods were also known as the children of the Earth and the Sky. Most people regard these tales as myths, just like the Greek gods. Others, though, wonder whether there is more to the story. Some scientists think the Anunnaki were actual people. They might have come from another planet, according to popular belief. Many individuals believe they are from the enigmatic planet X, which they claim passed incredibly close to Earth thousands of years ago. Why would aliens come to Earth and behave like gods? Of course, to enslave humans! According to this theory, the Anunnaki compelled the Sumerians to dig for gold for them. The Anunnaki departed for Planet X after they had all they needed. According to some, the Anunnaki were a kind of reptile humanoid. They argue that these reptiles assisted the Sumerians in the development of their writing and mathematical systems. Furthermore, they believe that reptiles still exist and have influence over people. Were the Anunnaki genuine? Or have they fabricated gods? One thing is sure: these ancient Sumerian deities continue to attract humans.

Volumes for 1898-1968 include a directory of publishers.