This study has been undertaken in quest for understanding the seemingly unaddressed issues in irrigation schemes. Too habitually, studies in irrigation schemes are essentially purposeful on the issues of crop production and water supply and management. This study thus approaches the issue of rural livelihoods and irrigation initiated projects trying to weigh the viability and feasibility of those projects and assessing the problems faced by the participants. The study is highly qualitative and adopted investigative techniques like observation, focus group discussions and unstructured interviews. The study has been carried out in the Mushandike irrigation scheme with meticulous emphasis and specialisation on Village 12. The research thus seeks to give an anthropological elucidation of irrigation initiated projects as rural livelihoods and how sustainable they appear to be. The sustainable livelihoods framework by Ian Scoones has been employed in trying to explicate the findings of the study. It has thus been observed that irrigation initiated projects in the area of study are not sustainable, are very seasonal and vulnerable to shocks. However coping strategies have been put in place but goals are still not met in accordance to the plans.

Small-scale irrigation is expanding rapidly in parts of the world, especially sub-Saharan Africa, offering smallholder farmers an opportunity to improve their livelihoods, diets, and resilience to climate change among other benefits. Growing research focuses on the potential for small-scale irrigation to offer a pathway for women’s empowerment, yet the factors conditioning the relationship between small-scale irrigation and women’s empowerment are not well understood. The evidence tends to be scattered across context-specific case studies that focus on targeted outcomes, without distinguishing between technology types, scales, or approaches to irrigation systems or technologies. This paper synthesizes the issues related to gender and small-scale irrigation using a conceptual framework that highlights the linkages between elements of women’s empowerment and small-scale irrigation. Because gendered dynamics with small-scale irrigation play out differently depending on the scale of irrigation and the technologies used, this paper applies the framework to examine case studies across a typology of small-scale irrigation systems. The case studies cover a range of farming and livelihood systems in which women’s roles and gender relations vary, highlighting the importance of the opportunity structure or context in which irrigation takes place. This paper then draws lessons on the various ways in which small-scale irrigation, gender relations, and women’s empowerment interact and highlights areas where research gaps remain.

Smallholder irrigation farming is potentially transformative to poor communities. Although previous studies have examined the relationship between smallholder irrigation farming and livelihoods in South Africa, little has been done to quantify the contribution and to examine how benefits from smallholder irrigation are distributed across different types of households. It is often assumed that the benefits flowing from irrigation farming will be distributed evenly among the irrigators. Furthermore, previous studies have focused on farmers operating on irrigation schemes to the exclusion of independent smallholder irrigation farmers. This thesis aims to examine the contribution of smallholder irrigation farming to rural livelihoods in South Africa, specifically the contribution of smallholder irrigation farming to improved household income and food security as pathways out of poverty for rural households. The study provides a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of smallholder irrigation farming on rural livelihoods by including independent irrigators. Specifically, the study addresses the following questions: How has smallholder irrigation farming contributed to household income and food security in the study area? Are household income and food security significant pathways through which smallholder irrigation farming contributes to rural livelihoods? To what extent does smallholder irrigation farming contribute to household income and food security? What factors determine benefit distribution among irrigators? The study was conducted in Mopani district in the Greater Tzaneen municipality of Limpopo Province of South Africa in 2013. Julesburg irrigation scheme, located in the former Gazankulu and Lebowakgomo homelands, formed the anchor of the study area. Data were collected through a survey of 180 rural households, 27 of which were smallholder irrigation scheme farmers, 35 smallholder non-irrigation scheme farmers (independent irrigators), 53 smallholder farmers practising home gardening and 65 other households that included dryland farmers and those who did not practise farming. The households were selected from villages in the vicinity of the irrigation scheme. Farming households represented three groups of farmers, namely, scheme irrigators, independent irrigators and home gardeners. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews with the sampled households. Data analysis employed econometric regression models, semi-parametric propensity score matching techniques and the analysis of variance to compare livelihood outcomes between irrigating and non-irrigating households. Irrigation was the treatment and non-irrigators were used as a control group for propensity score matching. Results of the survey identified substantial differences in the capital base among home gardener, scheme and independent irrigator households. Households involved in irrigation farming had a stronger capital base in terms of natural, physical and financial capital. Differences in the capital base existed even if income flows from agriculture were not considered, suggesting that participation in irrigation farming positively affects the overall capital base of rural households. The results also provide sufficient evidence that smallholder irrigation farming makes a significant contribution to rural livelihoods through its effect on household income and food security. Irrigators were found to have a significantly higher household income and were more food-secure than their non-irrigating counterparts, suggesting that smallholder irrigation contributed positively to rural livelihoods. This provides a strong motivation for continued investment in smallholder irrigation farming in South Africa as part of a strategy to improve rural livelihoods and to grow the rural economy. However, the benefits from irrigation accrue unevenly for different types of farmers and, therefore, they are not equally successful. The main determinants of benefit distribution were: adequacy of source of water for farming, gender and marital status of the household head, ownership of transport means and access to financial services. The contribution of smallholder irrigation to rural livelihoods can be further enhanced by focusing on policies that enhance female participation in irrigation farming, equip farmers with entrepreneurial skills, encourage membership of associations and enhance the effectiveness of the associations to allow more farmers to participate in irrigation farming. As independent irrigators benefit more from smallholder irrigation farming, independent irrigation should be promoted as an option for expanding smallholder irrigation farming. Such policies should be integrated into the overall strategy of growing the rural economy within the National Development Plan of the country.

A joint FAO and World Bank study which shows how the farming systems approach can be used to identify priorities for the reduction of hunger and poverty in the main farming systems of the six major developing regions of the world.

States that the aim of this study was to review and evaluate appropriate development paths for expansion from homestead food gardening to smallholder irrigation farming, increased water use productivity of crop production and improved livelihoods on selected smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa.

Sub-Saharan Africa has always been hard hit by several problems for decades now.Seasonal drought has been part of the disasters that plaque the region and with the recent threat of Climate Change, the problems now assume a scary magnitude if efforts are not intensified to mitigate it.Besides, conflicts, lack of policy direction, formulation of policies with unrealistic assumptions, uncommitted political leadership, etc.have impinged on the region's food production and efforts at alleviating poverty. This book examines small scale irrigation schemes as poverty intervention measures in the drylands of Northern Ghana in the West African Region. Two small scale irrigation schemes have been examined to ascertain how a relevant poverty intervention measure can be effectively introduced and made to empower the poor as it has been designed to do especially in the drylands of the Tropics. Though the people in the various communities expressed satisfaction with the performance of the schemes, many problems were uncovered. The book will be relevant to young researchers and undergraduate students of Development Studies, Natural Resource Management and Social Science in general.

Contemporary livelihoods and farming styles of plot holder homesteads at Dzindi, a smallholder canal irrigation scheme in the former homeland of Venda, in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, were investigated. Five major livelihood types and thee main farming styles were identified and studied for patterns of diversity and change, all which should be supported by policy. Access to land and water should also be govern by policies that take in consideration the changes in the socio-economic circumstances and livelihood options of individual plot holder homesteads. Other important policy issues are the broadening of access to markets, finding ways to reduce the variable costs of production, rehabilitating the irrigation infrastructure and improving collective management of water distribution.

This paper attempts to understand gender issues in micro-irrigation technology by exploring the dynamics of gender, water and rural livelihoods. Based on an empirical study in the rural areas ofWest Nepal undertaken in 2003, the paper assesses the socioeconomic impact of drip-irrigation systems on men and women􀂶s lives. A combination of participatory research tools, participant observationand secondary sources were used to generate data. The study revealed that women extensively contributed to vegetable farming under the drip-irrigation systems. The total time (mean hours) spent by women in vegetable production is significantly higher than those spent by their male counterparts. The benefit cost analysis of vegetable farming has shown overall viability in terms of net present value, benefit cost ratio, internal rate of return and payback period. Based on the study findings, thepaper suggests that similar technological interventions could be considered in places of similar socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics to help empower rural women. Finally, the paper raisessome significant questions in relation to rural livelihoods and womens entitlements.