Indonesia’'s forests make up one of the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems. They have long been harvested by local people to meet their daily needs. Since the 1970s, a combination of demographic, economic and policy factors has driven forest exploitation at the industrial scale and resulted in growing deforestation. Key factors behind the forest loss and land use change in present-day Indonesia are the expansion of oil palm, plywood production and pulp and paper industries. Oil palm has been one of the fastest-growing sectors of the Indonesian economy, increasing from less than 1 million hectares in 1991 to 8.9 million hectares in 2011. The plywood and pulp and paper industries have also expanded significantly since the log export ban in 1985. All three sectors have contributed to deforestation. Several measures are being taken to reduce the loss of tropical forests in Indonesia. These measures are driven by growing global concern about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity and global warming and the Indonesian government’s commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A major policy initiative revolves around developing renewable energy from biomass that can be sourced from oil palm, sugar, cassava, jatropha and timber plantations. This paper analyzes these measures and assesses the conditions under which they may be most effective.

The objective of this study was to evaluate past and current policies and smallholder financing schemes in the palm oil industry in Indonesia and Malaysia. The outcomes of these models for smallholders were also evaluated, in terms of income security, sustainable practices and environmental impact. Finally, financing schemes that could contribute to more sustainable smallholder oil palm development were analyzed, and compared to past and existing schemes. The focus of this study is on oil palm smallholders, who play a crucial role in the palm oil production industry and account for the vast majority of oil palm cultivation in Malaysia, and even more so in Indonesia. A number of past and current financing schemes in Indonesia and Malaysia were evaluated through a literature analysis and field assessment. In Malaysia, the main long-term financing challenges faced by smallholders have been solved by large government-sponsored financing schemes and are, thus, less relevant for the report’s discussion. As such, the case studies regarding current innovative financing schemes are restricted geographically to Indonesia. The report proposes potential models to increase the mobilization of long-term finance to smallholders in the palm oil sector. Furthermore, it identifies and reflects on the key enabling conditions that would help overcome the bottlenecks in smallholder long-term financing and create an enabling environment for sustainable oil palm investments. These are: 1) incentives to meet sustainability requirements including Good Agricultural Practices, RSPO certification and deforestation-free production; 2) land tenure security; 3) improved market linkages between smallholders and mills; 4) support for FSPs to assess and manage risks; and 5) strong and effective smallholder organizations.

Half a decade into the global land rush, land-intensive investment throughout Southeast Asia continues to confront social and environmental issues such as land conflict and improperly regulated forest conversion. This study uses publicly available financial and spatial data to examine the geography of land-intensive investment in Southeast Asia, and to identify the limits imposed by problems with data availability. It focuses on three regions where land has been widely seen to be available for new investment: Indonesia’s outer islands; the “development triangle” where Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam meet; and the Golden Quadrangle region which comprises the borderlands of northeastern Myanmar, northwestern Laos, southern and western Yunnan, and northern Thailand. These areas are examined in three chapter case studies, each of which uses the currently available spatial data to evaluate trade and investment dynamics in the area – including processes that are used to make land available – and combines these, where possible, with specially commissioned research on investment in key commodity crops to evaluate transparency with respect to financing. In a global and regional context where regulatory change is increasingly being driven by transnational concerns – by consumers, retailers and investors – information systems capable of tracking particular investments’ spatial targets, and thus their likelihood of various social and environmental outcomes, is increasingly desirable. This study describes current capabilities and challenges to realizing a more complete picture of investors’ roles in the development of “available” land.

This book discusses various renewable energy resources and technologies. Topics covered include recent advances in photobioreactor design; microalgal biomass harvesting, drying, and processing; and technological advances and optimised production systems as prerequisites for achieving a positive energy balance. It highlights alternative resources that can be used to replace fossil fuels, such as algal biofuels, biodiesel, bioethanol, and biohydrogen. Further, it reviews microbial technologies, discusses an immobilization method, and highlights the efficiency of enzymes as a key factor in biofuel production. In closing, the book outlines future research directions to increase oil yields in microalgae, which could create new opportunities for lipid-based biofuels, and provides an outlook on the future of global biofuel production. Given its scope, the book will appeal to all researchers and engineers working in the renewable energy sector.

During the past decade there has been a growing interest in bioenergy, driven by concerns about global climate change, growing energy demand, and depleting fossil fuel reserves. The predicted rise in biofuel demand makes it important to understand the potential consequences of expanding biofuel cultivation. A systematic review was conducted on the biodiversity impacts of three first-generation biofuel crops (oil palm, soybean, and jatropha) in the tropics. The study focused on the impacts on species richness, abundance (total number of individuals or occurrences), community composition, and ecosystem functions related to species richness and community composition.

This open access book presents a comprehensive analysis of biofuel use strategies from an interdisciplinary perspective using sustainability science. This interdisciplinary perspective (social science-natural science) means that the strategies and policy options proposed will have significant impacts on the economy and society alike. Biofuels are expected to contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, revitalizing economies in agricultural communities and alleviating poverty. However, despite these anticipated benefits, international organizations such as the FAO, OECD and UN have published reports expressing concerns that biofuel promotion may lead to deforestation, water pollution and water shortages. The impacts of biofuel use are extensive, cross-sectoral and complex, and as such, comprehensive analyses are required in order to assess the extent to which biofuels can contribute to sustainable societies. Applying interdisciplinary sustainability science concepts and methodologies, the book helps to enhance the establishment of a sustainable society as well as the development of appropriate responses to a global need for urgent action on current issues related to biofuels.

Plant biomass represents a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is one of the most important greenhouse gases and which is assumed to contribute more than half of the global warming. Establishing tree plantations or perennial crops on degraded land is an effective way to reduce atmospheric carbon by building up terrestrial carbon stocks, not only in the living biomass, but also in the soil. By converting Imperata cylindrica grassland into tree plantations (Acacia mangium or oil palm), aboveground biomass carbon can be increased about 20-fold and below ground biomass carbon up to 8-fold, while soil carbon can almost be doubled.

Exploring a topic of vital and ongoing importance, Traditional Forest Knowledge examines the history, current status and trends in the development and application of traditional forest knowledge by local and indigenous communities worldwide. It considers the interplay between traditional beliefs and practices and formal forest science and interrogates the often uneasy relationship between these different knowledge systems. The contents also highlight efforts to conserve and promote traditional forest management practices that balance the environmental, economic and social objectives of forest management. It places these efforts in the context of recent trends towards the devolution of forest management authority in many parts of the world. The book includes regional chapters covering North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia and the Australia-Pacific region. As well as relating the general factors mentioned above to these specific areas, these chapters cover issues of special regional significance, such as the importance of traditional knowledge and practices for food security, economic development and cultural identity. Other chapters examine topics ranging from key policy issues to the significant programs of regional and international organisations, and from research ethics and best practices for scientific study of traditional knowledge to the adaptation of traditional forest knowledge to climate change and globalisation.

The oil palm is the world's most valuable oil crop. Its production has increased over the decades, reaching 56 million tons in 2013, and it gives the highest yields per hectare of all oil crops. Remarkably, oil palm has remained profitable through periods of low prices. Demand for palm oil is also expanding, with the edible demand now complemented by added demand from biodiesel producers. The Oil Palm is the definitive reference work on this important crop. This fifth edition features new topics - including the conversion of palm oil to biodiesel, and discussions about the impacts of palm oil production on the environment and effects of climate change alongside comprehensively revised chapters, with updated references throughout. The Oil Palm, Fifth Edition will be useful to researchers, plantation and mill managers who wish to understand the science underlying recommended practices. It is an indispensable reference for agriculture students and all those working in the oil palm industry worldwide.