Originally published in 2005, this book covers the closely related techniques of electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) specifically from a geological viewpoint. Topics discussed include: principles of electron-target interactions, electron beam instrumentation, X-ray spectrometry, general principles of SEM image formation, production of X-ray 'maps' showing elemental distributions, procedures for qualitative and quantitative X-ray analysis (both energy-dispersive and wavelength-dispersive), the use of both 'true' electron microprobes and SEMs fitted with X-ray spectrometers, and practical matters such as sample preparation and treatment of results. Throughout, there is an emphasis on geological aspects not mentioned in similar books aimed at a more general readership. The book avoids unnecessary technical detail in order to be easily accessible, and forms a comprehensive text on EMPA and SEM for geological postgraduate and postdoctoral researchers, as well as those working in industrial laboratories.

In 1968, the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) published Special Publication 298 "Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis," which contained proceedings of a seminar held on the subject at NBS in the summer of 1967. This publication received wide interest that continued through the years far beyond expectations. The present volume, also the result of a gathering of international experts, in 1988, at NBS (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST), is intended to fulfill the same purpose. After years of substantial agreement on the procedures of analysis and data evaluation, several sharply differentiated approaches have developed. These are described in this publi cation with all the details required for practical application. Neither the editors nor NIST wish to endorse any single approach. Rather, we hope that their exposition will stimulate the dialogue which is a prerequisite for technical progress. Additionally, it is expected that those active in research in electron probe microanalysis will appreciate more clearly the areas in which further investigations are warranted.

Electron Probe Microanalysis presents a collection of reviews on various aspects of electron probe microanalysis. This book discusses the model for quantitative electron probe analysis. Organized into 14 chapters, this book begins with an overview of the various kinds of microanalysis followed by a discussion of the advantages that can be derived from using the electron probe method. This text then examines the various applications of backscattered electron and specimen current methods for quantitative analysis. Other chapters consider the fundamental concepts for quantitative electron probe microanalysis utilizing pure elements as standards. This book discusses as well the absolute method of quantitative chemical analysis by emission X-ray spectroscopy. The final chapter deals with the main advantage of the Kossel technique in the study of the thermodynamic and mechanical characteristics of crystals. This book is a valuable resource for scientists and research workers. Non-specialists who need information on this excellent analytical tool will also find this book useful.

The combination of electron microprobe x-ray emission spectrometry with the scanning techniques first developed for the scanning electron microscope permits using the scanning electron probe as a microscope sensitive to elemental composition. This technique is particularly useful in the many applications in which spatial distribution of one or more elements in a specimen is more important than local composition. Although oscilloscope representation of probe scanning is usually obtained by the simple technique of producing a dot of light for each arriving photon, more sophisticated scanning techniques such as expanded contrast registration and concentration mapping can provide more quantitative information. Signals other than x-rays, such as target current, electron backscatter, or cathodoluminescence may be used for image formation. Electron beam scanning can also be performed in a discontinuous fashion, so that the electron beam irradiates in succession a number of spots arranged in a square or rectangular pattern, and the number of photons registered in each position is retained in the memory of a multichannel analyzer. The application of these diverse scanning techniques is illustrated. (Author).

The aim of electron probe microanalysis of biological systems is to identify, localize, and quantify elements, mass, and water in cells and tissues. The method is based on the idea that all electrons and photons emerging from an electron beam irradiated specimen contain information on its structure and composition. In particular, energy spectroscopy of X-rays and electrons after interaction of the electron beam with the specimen is used for this purpose. However, the application of this method in biology and medicine has to overcome three specific problems: 1. The principle constituent of most cell samples is water. Since liquid water is not compatible with vacuum conditions in the electron microscope, specimens have to be prepared without disturbing the other components, in parti cular diffusible ions (elements). 2. Electron probe microanaly sis provides physical data on either dry specimens or fully hydrated, frozen specimens. This data usually has to be con verted into quantitative data meaningful to the cell biologist or physiologist. 3. Cells and tissues are not static but dynamic systems. Thus, for example, microanalysis of physiolo gical processes requires sampling techniques which are adapted to address specific biological or medical questions. During recent years, remarkable progress has been made to overcome these problems. Cryopreparation, image analysis, and electron energy loss spectroscopy are key areas which have solved some problems and offer promise for future improvements.

In the spring of 1963, a well-known research institute made a market survey to assess how many scanning electron microscopes might be sold in the United States. They predicted that three to five might be sold in the first year a commercial SEM was available, and that ten instruments would saturate the marketplace. In 1964, the Cambridge Instruments Stereoscan was introduced into the United States and, in the following decade, over 1200 scanning electron microscopes were sold in the U. S. alone, representing an investment conservatively estimated at $50,000- $100,000 each. Why were the market surveyers wrongil Perhaps because they asked the wrong persons, such as electron microscopists who were using the highly developed transmission electron microscopes of the day, with resolutions from 5-10 A. These scientists could see little application for a microscope that was useful for looking at surfaces with a resolution of only (then) about 200 A. Since that time, many scientists have learned to appreciate that information content in an image may be of more importance than resolution per se. The SEM, with its large depth of field and easily that often require little or no sample prepara interpreted images of samples tion for viewing, is capable of providing significant information about rough samples at magnifications ranging from 50 X to 100,000 X. This range overlaps considerably with the light microscope at the low end, and with the electron microscope at the high end.

This book concisely illustrates the techniques of major surface analysis and their applications to a few key examples. Surfaces play crucial roles in various interfacial processes, and their electronic/geometric structures rule the physical/chemical properties. In the last several decades, various techniques for surface analysis have been developed in conjunction with advances in optics, electronics, and quantum beams. This book provides a useful resource for a wide range of scientists and engineers from students to professionals in understanding the main points of each technique, such as principles, capabilities and requirements, at a glance. It is a contemporary encyclopedia for selecting the appropriate method depending on the reader's purpose.