An examination of the ways cyberspace is changing both the theory and the practice of international relations.

This book examines new and challenging political aspects of cyber security and presents it as an issue defined by socio-technological uncertainty and political fragmentation. Structured along two broad themes and providing empirical examples for how socio-technical changes and political responses interact, the first part of the book looks at the current use of cyber space in conflictual settings, while the second focuses on political responses by state and non-state actors in an environment defined by uncertainties. Within this, it highlights four key debates that encapsulate the complexities and paradoxes of cyber security politics from a Western perspective – how much political influence states can achieve via cyber operations and what context factors condition the (limited) strategic utility of such operations; the role of emerging digital technologies and how the dynamics of the tech innovation process reinforce the fragmentation of the governance space; how states attempt to uphold stability in cyberspace and, more generally, in their strategic relations; and how the shared responsibility of state, economy, and society for cyber security continues to be re-negotiated in an increasingly trans-sectoral and transnational governance space. This book will be of much interest to students of cyber security, global governance, technology studies, and international relations. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license.

Actors in the cyber sphere include countries’ armed forces, intelligence organizations, legal authorities, and natural and legal persons. Cyber War is defined as the intrusion by one state to destroy or disrupt the computer systems or networks of another state. It is defined as “the sort of warfare in which computer systems are employed to damage or destroy adversary systems” in the United Nations Glossary, in the same way as information warfare. Cyber warfare moves at a breakneck speed. It’s a global phenomenon that occurs before the traditional battleground. In order to counter cyber crimes and related issues, more studies needed to improve our understanding, inform policies and develop and strengthen cooperation between individuals, institutions and countries. All states need to take constitutional, legal, technical and administrative measures on cybersecurity. For this purpose, “national virtual environment security policies” should be developed and constantly updated. National information security should be given utmost importance. A cyber security awareness culture should be established and supported by regional and global international institutions and organizations. A common understanding on cyber security needs to be adopted at all levels. CONTENTS PREFACE PART 1. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND CYBER ENVIRONMENT CYBER ENVIRONMENT – Serkan Yenal and Naci Akdemir CYBER NEGOTIATIONS THROUGH THE LENSES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW – Öncel Sençerman PART 2. CYBER POLICIES OF THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND STATES CONCEPTUAL AND NORMATIVE BASIS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S CYBERSECURITY – Neziha Musaoğlu and Neriman Hocaoğlu Bahadır FRANCE’S CYBER SECURITY POLICIES – Ahmet Emre Köker TURKEY’S CYBER SECURITY POLICIES – Ozan Örmeci, Eren Alper Yılmaz, and Ahmet Emre Köker PART 3. CYBER SECURITY AND WARFARE THE IMPACTS OF USING CYBER ENVIRONMENT AS A DOMAIN IN MODERN WARFARE: CYBER-ATTACKS AND CYBER SECURITY – Murat Pınar and Soyalp Tamçelik HOW CAN CYBER SECURITY BE ENSURED IN THE GLOBAL CYBERSPACE? – Hüsmen Akdeniz DIGITAL NON-STATE ACTORS IN CYBER CONFLICTS: HOW THE HACKTIVISTS AND CYBER SOLDIERS CHANGE THE FUTURE – Cansu Arisoy Gedik CYBERATTACK THREAT AGAINST CRITICAL ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURES AND ENERGY SECURITY – Cemal Kakisim CYBER TERRORISM IN NEW GENERATION WAR CONCEPT – Yunus Karaağaç SECURITY OF HUMANITARIAN ORGANISATIONS IN CYBERSPACE – Aslı Şirin HUMAN SECURITY AND POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF CYBERTHREATS ON DEMOCRACY: CASE OF GHANA -Burak Şakir Şeker and Harun Abubakar Siddique NEW BATTLEFIELD BETWEEN CHINA AND THE USA: CYBERSPACE – Dogan Safak Polat RUSSIAN FEDERATION’S CYBER ​​WARFARE CAPABILITIES – Ahmet Sapmaz CYBER SECURITY ENVIRONMENT IN THE GULF OF GUINEA – Burak Şakir Şeker, Hasret Çomak, and Harun Abubakar Siddique PART 4. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS AND CYBER SECURITY THE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ON CYBERSECURITY – Erol Demir and Fahri Erenel CYBER SECURITY IN DISASTER AND RISK MANAGEMENT – Levent Uzunçıbuk MEDIA AND CYBER SECURITY RISKS – Emine Kılıçaslan RISKS AND CYBER SECURITY AT MUSEUMS – Şengül Aydıngün and Haldun Aydıngün PART 5. CYBER WORLD, CYBER CULTURE, AND INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT OF FOREIGN TRADE AND COOPERATION: INSTITUTIONS, STRATEGIES, TECHNOLOGIES – Natalia Yevchenko A BLOCK CHAIN-BASED APPLICATION IN CYBER ECONOMIC SYSTEM: NFT – Duygu Yücel THE PHENOMENON OF DIGITIZATION IN THE TURKISH BANKING SYSTEM, RISKS AND SOLUTIONS IN THE FIELD OF CYBER SECURITY – Hatice Nur Germir INSECURITY SYNDROME IN DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT – Hüseyin Çelik CYBER SECURITY: A PERSPECTIVE FROM ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – Merve Mamacı THE FAR-RIGHT AND SOCIAL MEDIA – Hüseyin Pusat Kıldiş

This volume offers an overview of the growing body of knowledge about cyber security and the related policy debates, with an emphasis on the role of state actors in cyberspace.

Cyberspace is everywhere in today’s world and has significant implications not only for global economic activity, but also for international politics and transnational social relations. This compilation addresses for the first time the “cyberization” of international relations - the growing dependence of actors in IR on the infrastructure and instruments of the internet, and the penetration of cyberspace into all fields of their activities. The volume approaches this topical issue in a comprehensive and interdisciplinary fashion, bringing together scholars from disciplines such as IR, security studies, ICT studies and philosophy as well as experts from everyday cyber-practice. In the first part, concepts and theories are presented to shed light on the relationship between cyberspace and international relations, discussing implications for the discipline and presenting fresh and innovative theoretical approaches. Contributions in the second part focus on specific empirical fields of activity (security, economy, diplomacy, cultural activity, transnational communication, critical infrastructure, cyber espionage, social media, and more) and address emerging challenges and prospects for international politics and relations.

Mass communications and advances in communications technology pose fundamental challenges to the traditional conduct of diplomacy by reducing hierarchy, promoting transparency, crowding out secrecy, mobilizing global social movements, and increasing the importance of public diplomacy in international relations. But the primary source of change, the force that acts as a common denominator and accelerates other changes, is communications and information technology (CIT). Where nations were once connected through foreign ministries and traders, they are now linked to millions of individuals by fibre optics, satellite, wireless, and cable in a complex network without central control. These trends have resulted in considerable speculation about the future of diplomacy. Contributors include Andrew F. Cooper (University of Waterloo), Ronald J. Deibert (University of Toronto), Eytan Gilboa (Holon Institute of Technology and Bar-Ilan University, Israel), Steven Livingston (George Washington University), Evan H. Potter (Universty of Ottawa), Gordon Smith (University of Victoria), Peter J. Smith (Athabasca University), Elizabeth Smythe (Concordia University College of Alberta), and Allen Sutherland (Government of Canada).

Cyber security is concerned with the identification, avoidance, management and mitigation of risk in, or from, cyber space. The risk concerns harm and damage that might occur as the result of everything from individual carelessness, to organised criminality, to industrial and national security espionage and, at the extreme end of the scale, to disabling attacks against a country's critical national infrastructure. However, there is much more to cyber space than vulnerability, risk, and threat. Cyber space security is an issue of strategy, both commercial and technological, and whose breadth spans the international, regional, national, and personal. It is a matter of hazard and vulnerability, as much as an opportunity for social, economic and cultural growth. Consistent with this outlook, The Oxford Handbook of Cyber Security takes a comprehensive and rounded approach to the still evolving topic of cyber security. The structure of the Handbook is intended to demonstrate how the scope of cyber security is beyond threat, vulnerability, and conflict and how it manifests on many levels of human interaction. An understanding of cyber security requires us to think not just in terms of policy and strategy, but also in terms of technology, economy, sociology, criminology, trade, and morality. Accordingly, contributors to the Handbook include experts in cyber security from around the world, offering a wide range of perspectives: former government officials, private sector executives, technologists, political scientists, strategists, lawyers, criminologists, ethicists, security consultants, and policy analysts.

Cyber issues are of utmost importance and sensitivity for US-China relations today. The combination of cyber and politics is also developing from 'low politics' to 'high politics'. This book discusses cyber politics in US-China relations from four distinct aspects: first, the overall analysis of the role and manifestation of cyber politics in international relations from a theoretical perspective; second, the main issues regarding cyber politics in US-China relations; third, the factors influencing cyber politics in US-China relations; and fourth, the prospect and practice of cyber politics in US-China relations.Based on an exploration of issues in cybersecurity, cyberspace governance, ideology and the power tussle in cyberspace between the US and China, as well as an analysis of the factors influencing cyber politics in the bilateral relations from the perspectives of strategy, discourse, and trust, this book asserts that cyberspace is rapidly becoming a new arena for the geopolitical games between the US and China. A new form of cyber geopolitics is thus emerging.

For more than three hundred years, the world wrestled with conflicts that arose between nation-states. Nation-states wielded military force, financial pressure, and diplomatic persuasion to create "world order." Even after the end of the Cold War, the elements comprising world order remained essentially unchanged. But 2012 marked a transformation in geopolitics and the tactics of both the established powers and smaller entities looking to challenge the international community. That year, the US government revealed its involvement in Operation "Olympic Games," a mission aimed at disrupting the Iranian nuclear program through cyberattacks; Russia and China conducted massive cyber-espionage operations; and the world split over the governance of the Internet. Cyberspace became a battlefield. Cyber conflict is hard to track, often delivered by proxies, and has outcomes that are hard to gauge. It demands that the rules of engagement be completely reworked and all the old niceties of diplomacy be recast. Many of the critical resources of statecraft are now in the hands of the private sector, giant technology companies in particular. In this new world order, cybersecurity expert Adam Segal reveals, power has been well and truly hacked.

We depend on information and information technology (IT) to make many of our day-to-day tasks easier and more convenient. Computers play key roles in transportation, health care, banking, and energy. Businesses use IT for payroll and accounting, inventory and sales, and research and development. Modern military forces use weapons that are increasingly coordinated through computer-based networks. Cybersecurity is vital to protecting all of these functions. Cyberspace is vulnerable to a broad spectrum of hackers, criminals, terrorists, and state actors. Working in cyberspace, these malevolent actors can steal money, intellectual property, or classified information; impersonate law-abiding parties for their own purposes; damage important data; or deny the availability of normally accessible services. Cybersecurity issues arise because of three factors taken together - the presence of malevolent actors in cyberspace, societal reliance on IT for many important functions, and the presence of vulnerabilities in IT systems. What steps can policy makers take to protect our government, businesses, and the public from those would take advantage of system vulnerabilities? At the Nexus of Cybersecurity and Public Policy offers a wealth of information on practical measures, technical and nontechnical challenges, and potential policy responses. According to this report, cybersecurity is a never-ending battle; threats will evolve as adversaries adopt new tools and techniques to compromise security. Cybersecurity is therefore an ongoing process that needs to evolve as new threats are identified. At the Nexus of Cybersecurity and Public Policy is a call for action to make cybersecurity a public safety priority. For a number of years, the cybersecurity issue has received increasing public attention; however, most policy focus has been on the short-term costs of improving systems. In its explanation of the fundamentals of cybersecurity and the discussion of potential policy responses, this book will be a resource for policy makers, cybersecurity and IT professionals, and anyone who wants to understand threats to cyberspace.