Can ‘traditional’ leaders and institutions help to build more legitimate, accountable and effective governments in polities or ‘states’ under (re)construction? This book investigates the fascinating case of “Somaliland”, the 20-year old non-recognized state which emerged from Somalia’s conflict and state collapse.

The Somali people are fiercely nationalistic. Colonialism split them into five segments divided between four different powers. Thus decolonization and pan-Somalism became synonymous. In 1960 a partial reunification took place between British Somaliland and Somalia Italiana. Africa Confidential wrote at the time that the new Somali state would never be beset by tribal division but this discounted the existence of powerful clans within Somali society and the persistence of colonial administrative cultures. The collapse of parliamentary democracy in 1969 and the resulting army--and clanic--dictatorship that followed led to a civil war in the 'perfect' national state. It lasted fourteen years in the "British" North and is still raging today in the 'Italian' South. Somaliland "re-birthed" itself through an enormous solo effort but the viable nation so recreated within its former colonial borders was never internationally recognized and still struggles to exist economically and diplomatically. This book recounts an African success story where the peace so widely acclaimed by the international community has had no reward but its own lonely achievement.

On May 18th, 1991, Somaliland embarked on a new path in order to manage its own destiny as a sovereign state and for 20 years the people of Somaliland have demonstrated their strong commitment in achieving the goal of independence through democratic values and a rejection of extremism; four peaceful and fair parliamentary and presidential elections, as well as a popular referendum have been held. In addition the local economy shows signs of hope, and the already announced forthcoming presence of international banks in the country will further help Somaliland to trade with the world. This first volume of Somaliland – the way forward documents the recent advances in Somaliland in peace, development, good governance and economic revival. A number of critical issues, including the state of law and order, justice and rights, national planning, democracy and political maturity all built on the centuries-old traditions of a nomadic Muslim society are explored.

Analyzing primary and secondary data on the history of Somaliland parallel to that of Somalia, since decolonization through the Somali Civil War, I focus on Somaliland’s decades-long state formation through the perspectives, arguments and actions of my informants themselves. I consider the impact of colonial trajectories, national self-identification, political repression and armed conflict on the unusual path chosen and followed by Somaliland’s liberators up to 1991, then its representative leaders thereafter. I disaggregate my data on Somalilander views on evolving norms in relation to clan influence, traditional decision-making processes and norms of governance, diaspora support, security challenges, and other societal factors, as these are deeply relevant to Somaliland’s adherence to international norms of statehood, and Somaliland’s leaders have given each of them serious attention as they continue to pursue international recognition. This chapter also addresses the influence of the African Union, United Nations, and Ethiopia and Egypt’s conflict over rights to the Nile, as context for Somaliland leaders’ choices to take actions and its people’s support bolstering de facto independence and the pursuit of international recognition. I conclude this chapter noting my assumption of Somaliland’s de facto independence as a functioning state. Chapter VI Somaliland and Somalilanders: International Norms and Domestic Opinion Chapter six considers the reasons why certain populations of Somalilanders—minority groups, those from the disputed eastern regions of Sool and Sanaag, and some human rights activists—challenge Somaliland’s right to unconditional international recognition of independence, a finding which simultaneously complicates the government’s claim and influences its decisions. In this chapter I report data from both supporters of and detractors from Somaliland’s quest for international recognition, how Somaliland’s leaders have marshalled popular support in relation to international norms, and where they have failed to do so sufficiently. Chapter VII What Somalilanders have done to meet perceived international obligations Chapter seven considers several specific areas in which international norms of self-determination have impacted the decisions of Somaliland’s leaders, based on specific criteria. It begins by further disaggregating relevant categories of norms, then cites interview data and other evidence of actions taken in relation to these norms, with a focus on demonstration of popular will and consolidation of territorial integrity. Chapter VIII Summary, Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research This dissertation ends with a summary of findings in relation to several key conclusions: (1) Somaliland’s leaders have taken significant steps toward meeting what they perceive to be the fundamental norms of self-determination and statehood required by members of the international community to grant Somaliland recognition. (2) Such actions explain not only the establishment of democratic institutions and Somaliland’s 1991 referendum, they also allow us to better understand tensions among security concerns, human rights and development in Somaliland’s capital and eastern regions. (3) While international norms have yet to be used by key actors to resolve Somaliland’s international status, Somaliland’s government has gone to great lengths to meet the criteria for self-determination, independence, statehood and potential international recognition as described in current norms and law. Appendix I Interview data from Las Anod Maps 1. Map of the current regions of Somaliland 2. Map of the contested regions of Somaliland 3. Map of the Continent of Africa 4. Map of East Africa and the Horn Charts I. Major Clan Families of Somalia and Isaaq Sub-Clans of Somaliland II. Clan Families and Major Haarti (Majerteen) Clans in Eastern Somaliland III. Sub-Clans and Affiliations of the Dulbahante in Las Anod, Sool, Somaliland Bibliography Books, Articles and Documents Interviews

Somaliland is an example of a territory that has fulfilled the conditions that are pre-requisite for state recognition in the international system. Somaliland is however, not recognised as a state. Questions abound about why Somaliland finds itself in this situation when there are territories which obtained recognition after fulfilling a fraction of what Somaliland has achieved. This study contributes to answering the aforementioned questions. This study has certain objectives. It delved into the examination of the criteria that is used for the recognition of states in the international system. It also analyses the role of intergovernmental organizations in the non-recognition of Somaliland. The objective of this study is also to make an assessment of the nature of interactions between Somaliland, and other actors in the international system.

When does a country become a state? On 18 May 1991, the leaders of the Somali. National Movement and the elders of northern Somali clans proclaimed that they were setting up the new Republic of Somaliland. Why has Somaliland not followed Somalia into 'state collapse'?

Lewis brings his considerable knowledge of the area to set out in accessible form and in highly readable style the complexities of Somali societal and clan structure, traditions, and historically significant events. This information handbook is recommended briefing material for aid workers or journalists visiting the area. Essential reading for those planning to visit or work in Somalia, and for the general reader with an interest in the Horn, it lifts the veil on a fascinating and functioning heritage.

Somaliland declared its independence from Somalia in 1991, though no country in the world has recognized its existence. Since then Somaliland has maintained peace and stability while laying the groundwork for democratic governance. But today Somaliland is at a perilous crossroads. The administration of President Dahir Riyale Kahin has repeatedly failed to hold key elections originally scheduled for mid-2008. The resulting crisis has laid bare the limits of what Somaliland has accomplished and now threatens its hard-won progress. Somaliland's government continues to rely on extralegal "security committees" to usurp the role of the courts and allow government officials to incarcerate criminal suspects, including children, without charge or trial. While heavy-handed acts of repression are rare, they are not unheard of, and low-level harassment of journalists, opposition officials and others is common. The president and his government frequently flout the laws and constitution, while the legislature and the courts do nothing to rein in such abuses of power. Human Rights Watch urges Somaliland's government to ensure that presidential elections are held as currently scheduled in September 2009. In the longer term, Somaliland's government should make a concerted effort to strengthen the rule of law and end human rights violations. Somaliland's international partners, whether they recognize Somaliland's independence or not, should use both pressure and assistance to help ensure that this happens.