Tunneling reactions in chemistry are characterized by the low-temperature limit when the classical contribution is negligible. Many practical applications benefit from the lack of heat and have a deep physical basis. Interesting advantages of chemical synthesis at low temperatures have also been demonstrated. This book covers fundamental and practical aspects of the processes and experimental and theoretical methods used in the field. The chapters are written by leading scientists who have very strong experience in the selected topics, and many practical recommendations can be found in this book.

Covering the fundamental and practical aspects of the processes of thermodynamics as well as experimental and theoretical methods used in the field, this informed examination highlights how the development of thermodynamics has been essentially based on the potentials of cryogenic technology. Penned by leading scientists with strong experience in the field who predict that many useful and exciting phenomena remain to be discovered in the future, this well-researched educational resource contains both a history of and practical recommendations for the ongoing study of matter at low temperature.

This book is for those physicists, physical chemists, metallurgists and engineers who need to carry out investigations at low temperatures. It deals with the production and measurement of low temperatures, the handling of liquefied gases on the laboratory scale, and the principles and details of the design of experimental cryostats, including the problems of heat transfer and temperature control. While covering the technical details needed by professional researchers, such as the electrical and thermal conductivities of materials used in making low temperature equipment, the book includes enough explanations of the fundamental principles that it will also be useful to advanced university students.

The aim of this book is to provide information about performing experi ments at low temperatures, as well as basic facts concerning the low tem perature properties of liquid and solid matter. To orient the reader, I begin with chapters on these low temperature properties. The major part of the book is then devoted to refrigeration techniques and to the physics on which they are based. Of equal importance, of course, are the definition and measurement of temperature; hence low temperature thermometry is extensively discussed in subsequent chapters. Finally, I describe a variety of design and construction techniques which have turned out to be useful over the years. The content of the book is based on the three-hour-per-week lecture course which I have given several times at the University of Bayreuth between 1983 and 1991. It should be particularly suited for advanced stu dents whose intended masters (diploma) or Ph.D. subject is experimental condensed matter physics at low temperatures. However, I believe that the book will also be of value to experienced scientists, since it describes sev eral very recent advances in experimental low temperature physics and technology, for example, new developments in nuclear refrigeration and thermometry.

This book offers the reader an overview of the basic approaches to the theoretical description of low-temperature plasmas, covering numerical methods, mathematical models and modeling techniques. The main methods of calculating the cross sections of plasma particle interaction and the solution of the kinetic Boltzmann equation for determining the transport coefficients of the plasma are also presented. The results of calculations of thermodynamic properties, transport coefficients, the equilibrium particle-interaction cross sections and two-temperature plasmas are also discussed. Later chapters consider applications, and the results of simulation and calculation of plasma parameters in induction and arc plasma torches are presented. The complex physical processes in high-frequency plasmas and arc plasmas, the internal and external parameters of plasma torches, near-electrode processes, heat transfer, the flow of solid particles in plasmas and other phenomena are considered. The book is intended for professionals involved in the theoretical study of low-temperature plasmas and the design of plasma torches, and will be useful for advanced students in related areas.

Radioastronomy has painted an extraordinary picture of the Galactic interstellar medium, which displays an amazing organization and structuring of matter from very hot ultra-diluted media to very cold denser milieus considered as the cradles of stars. In these latter environments, the discovery of a chemical diversity of molecules, including those associated with precursors to life itself, immediately brought to light the question of the mechanisms leading to their formation and persistence at temperatures as low as 10 K. The chemical networks developed to understand telescope observations required a great deal of physical and chemical parameters relevant to interstellar conditions, particularly at very low temperatures. These included the rate coefficients of thousands of gas phase chemical reactions. Such data were missing in the 1970s, when the very first molecular discoveries were made. Then, in the early eighties, it was realized that uniform supersonic flows were ideal chemical reactors to study reaction kinetics at interstellar temperatures.Uniform Supersonic Flows in Chemical Physics reviews 40 years of use of such reactors, the so-called CRESU machines, focusing on major breakthroughs brought to chemical physics, physical chemistry, astrophysics and astrochemistry by the various experiments carried out with such apparatuses. The wealth of kinetic data at very low temperatures provided new targets for the predictions of theory, with new theoretical methods being developed to explain observed behavior. The first two chapters describe the physical context of reaction kinetics at very low temperatures and the requirements needed to run optimally such uniform supersonic flows, together with a historical perspective. Chapters 3 to 9 describe the various families of chemical processes that have been explored within the CRESU technique, highlighting major advances and offering an exhaustive up-to-date bibliography. Chapters 10 and 11 show how these experimental results have helped in improving the ideas in quantum chemistry and interstellar modeling. The book concludes with an overview of potential perspectives and new routes to be explored.

Tunneling reactions in chemistry are characterized by the low-temperature limit when the classical contribution is negligible. Many practical applications benefit from the lack of heat and have a deep physical basis. Interesting advantages of chemical synthesis at low temperatures have also been demonstrated. This book covers fundamental and practical aspects of the processes and experimental and theoretical methods used in the field. The chapters are written by leading scientists who have very strong experience in the selected topics, and many practical recommendations can be found in this book.

Cryogenics (low-temperature physics) has become important in everyday life through its use in satellite communications, medical diagnosis, natural gas transport, infrared surveillance, etc. This book explains the how and why of cooling systems, liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, and the approach to absolute zero. It will be of value to physics graduate students, as well as to engineers and biologists facing low-temperature problems.

It is now ten years since it was first convincingly shown that below 1 K the ther mal conductivity and the heat capacity of amorphous solids behave in a way which is strikingly different to that of crystalline solids. Since that time there has been a wide variety of experimental and theoretical studies which have not only defined and clarified the low temperature problem more closely, but have also linked these differences between amorphous and crystalline solids to those suggested by older acoustic and thermal experiments (extending up to 100 K). The interest in this somewhat restricted branch of physics lies to a considerable extent in the fact that the differences were so unexpected. It might be thought that as the tempera ture, probing frequency, or more generally the energy decreases, a continuum de scription in which structural differences between glass and crystal are concealed should become more accurate. In a sense this is true, but it appears that there exists in an amorphous solid a large density of additional excitations which have no counterpart in normal crystals. This book presents a survey of the wide range of experimental investigations of these low energy excitations, together with a re view of the various theoretical models put forward to explain their existence and nature.

This book provides advanced undergraduate and graduate students with an overview of the fundamentals of cold and ultracold chemistry. Beginning with definitions of what cold and ultracold temperatures mean in chemistry, the book then takes the student through the essentials of scattering theory (classical and quantum mechanical), light-matter interaction, reaction dynamics and Rydberg physics. The author aims to show the reader the richness of the topic while motivating students to understand the fundamentals of these intriguing reactions and underlying connecting relationships. Including material which was previously only found in specialized review articles, this book provides students working in the fields of ultracold gases, chemical physics and physical chemistry with the tools they need to immerse themselves in the realm of cold and ultracold chemistry. This book opens up the exciting chemical laws which govern chemistry at low temperatures to the next generation of researchers.