Motor vehicles are a major source of greenhouse gas and other pollutant emissions that contribute to global climate change and urban and regional air pollution problems. Past efforts to develop motor vehicle emission inventories, needed for air quality planning, have been subject to significant uncertainties related to emission factors and spatial and temporal distributions of vehicle activity. The goal of this dissertation is to develop new inventories for vehicle emissions of greenhouse gases and co-emitted pollutants. A two-step approach was followed. First, motor vehicle emissions of carbon dioxide were mapped spatially and temporally using real-world traffic count data. The mapping was done separately for light- and heavy-duty vehicles so that emission factors specific to each vehicle type could be used to estimate associated air pollutant emissions. Second, long-term trends in emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and black carbon were analyzed. Emission trends were compared with long-term changes in the measured atmospheric concentrations of related pollutants, to assess the extent to which observed decreases in pollution can be attributed to motor vehicle emission control policies. The resulting motor vehicle emission inventories from this dissertation are more reliable than previous vehicle emission estimates, because spatial and temporal patterns of vehicle activity are explicitly accounted for using real-world traffic count data rather than transportation demand models, and emission factors are derived from real-world on-road studies rather than from laboratory testing. A fuel-based inventory for vehicle emissions is presented for carbon dioxide (CO2), and mapped at various spatial resolutions (10 km, 4 km, 1 km, and 500 m) using fuel sales and traffic count data. The mapping is done separately for gasoline-powered vehicles and heavy-duty diesel trucks. Emissions estimates from this study are compared with the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) and VULCAN. All three inventories agree at the national level within 5%. EDGAR uses road density as a surrogate to apportion vehicle emissions, which leads to 20-80% overestimates of on-road CO2 emissions in the largest U.S. cities. High-resolution emission maps are presented for Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco-San Jose, Houston, and Dallas-Fort Worth. Sharp emission gradients that exist near major highways are not apparent when emissions are mapped at 10 km resolution. High CO2 emission fluxes over highways become apparent at grid resolutions of 1 km and finer. Temporal variations in vehicle emissions are characterized using extensive day- and time-specific traffic count data, and are described over diurnal, day of week, and seasonal time scales. Clear differences are observed when comparing light- and heavy-duty vehicle traffic patterns and comparing urban and rural areas. Decadal emission trends were analyzed from 2000 to 2007 when traffic volumes were increasing, and a more recent period (2007-2010) when traffic volumes declined due to recession. We found large non-uniform changes in on-road CO2 emissions over a period of ~5 years, highlighting the importance of timely updates to motor vehicle emission inventories. A similar approach is used to estimate nitrogen oxide (NOx = NO + NO2) emissions from gasoline- and diesel-powered motor vehicles. Estimates are made at the national level for the period 1990 to 2010. Vehicle emissions are also estimated at the state level for California, and for the South Coast (Los Angeles) and San Joaquin Valley air basins. Fuel-based emission estimates are compared with predictions from widely used emission inventory models. Changes in diesel NOx emissions vary over time: increasing between 1990 and 1997, stable between 1997 and 2007, and decreasing since 2007. In contrast, gasoline engine-related NOx emissions have decreased steadily, by ~65% overall between 1990 and 2010, except in the San Joaquin Valley where reductions were not as large due to faster population growth. In the San Joaquin Valley, diesel engines were the dominant on-road NOx source in all years considered (reaching ~70% in 2010). In the urbanized South Coast air basin, gasoline engine emissions dominated in the past, and have been comparable to on-road diesel sources since 2007 (down from ~75% in 1990). Other major anthropogenic sources of NOx are added to compare emission trends with trends in surface pollutant observations and satellite-derived data. When all major anthropogenic NOx sources are included, the overall emission trend is downward in all cases ( -45% to -60%). Future reductions in motor vehicle NOx will depend on the effectiveness of new exhaust after-treatment controls on heavy-duty trucks, as well as further improvements to durability of emission control systems on light-duty vehicles. Long-term trends in carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from motor vehicles were also assessed. Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) are estimated based on my CO emission inventory, using ambient NMHC/CO ratios that were adjusted to exclude NMHC contributions from non-vehicular sources. Despite increases in fuel use of ~10-40%, CO running exhaust emissions from on-road vehicles decreased by ~80-90% in Los Angeles, Houston, and New York City, between 1990 and 2010. The ratio of NMHC/CO was found to remain constant at 0.24 " 0.04 mol C/mol CO over time in Los Angeles, indicating that emissions of both NMHC and CO decreased at a similar rate and were affected by similar emission control policies, whereas on-road data from other cities suggest rates of reduction in NMHC versus CO emissions may differ somewhat. Emission ratios of CO/NOx (nitrogen oxides = NO + NO2) and NMHC/NOx decreased by a factor of ~4 between 1990 and 2007 due to changes in the relative emission rates of passenger cars versus diesel trucks, and slight uptick thereafter, consistent across all urban areas considered here. These pollutant ratios are expected to increase in future years due to (1) slowing rates of decrease in CO and NMHC emissions from gasoline vehicles, and (2) significant advances in control of diesel NOx emissions. New estimates of particulate matter (PM) and black carbon (BC) emissions from heavy-duty diesel trucks in the Los Angeles area were developed as part of this research. Emission trends are compared with trends in ambient concentrations of particulate black and organic carbon over a 35-year period starting in 1975. On-road heavy-duty diesel emission factors of PM and BC have decreased by a factor of ~4 since 1975. After accounting for rapid growth in diesel fuel sales, on-road diesel BC emissions were found to have decreased by only ~20% between 1975 and 2010. In contrast, ambient measurements of BC concentrations in the Los Angeles basin show a clear downward trend, and have decreased steadily at an average rate of 4.2% per year since 1975. The slopes of best-fit lines in plots of measured OC versus BC concentrations have remained remarkably consistent over time. The stability of this ratio over time implies similar long-term trends in ambient black and organic carbon concentrations. We estimate that ambient OC levels in the Los Angeles basin have decreased by ~3.1% per year since 1975. Ongoing debate about the relative importance of gasoline versus diesel vehicle VOC emission contributions to secondary organic aerosol formation in urban areas is further informed by this research. Between 1995 and 2010, gasoline VOC emissions show a steeper downward trend, decreasing by 75 " 7% compared to OC which decreased by only 45 " 22%. The difference in slopes suggests that other sources of particulate organic carbon must also be contributing to the differing trends. When including other primary and secondary sources of organic aerosols from motor vehicles, the ambient and emission trends strongly agree. We conclude that long-term decreases in ambient OC likely resulted from efforts to control on-road gasoline emissions of VOCs. However, as a consequence of these efforts, other sources of organic aerosols have grown in relative importance including emissions from diesel trucks. Recommendations for future research include development of urban CO2 monitoring networks, modeling effects on air quality of long-term changes in motor vehicle emissions, and projecting future motor vehicle emissions and associated impacts on air quality.

Traffic-Related Air Pollution synthesizes and maps TRAP and its impact on human health at the individual and population level. The book analyzes mitigating standards and regulations with a focus on cities. It provides the methods and tools for assessing and quantifying the associated road traffic emissions, air pollution, exposure and population-based health impacts, while also illuminating the mechanisms underlying health impacts through clinical and toxicological research. Real-world implications are set alongside policy options, emerging technologies and best practices. Finally, the book recommends ways to influence discourse and policy to better account for the health impacts of TRAP and its societal costs. - Overviews existing and emerging tools to assess TRAP's public health impacts - Examines TRAP's health effects at the population level - Explores the latest technologies and policies--alongside their potential effectiveness and adverse consequences--for mitigating TRAP - Guides on how methods and tools can leverage teaching, practice and policymaking to ameliorate TRAP and its effects

Mobile sources contribute significantly to air pollution problems. Relevant pollutants include numerous gaseous and particle-phase species that can affect human health, ecosystems, and climate. Accurate inventories of emissions from these sources are needed to help understand possible adverse impacts, and to develop effective air quality management strategies. Unfortunately large uncertainties persist in the understanding of mobile source emissions, and how these emissions are changing over time. There are more than two hundred million motor vehicles operating in the United States alone, and measurements of emissions from these sources are sparse. Pollutant emission factor distributions are becoming increasingly skewed, and this continually increases the needed vehicle sample size in studies that seek to quantify fleet-average vehicle emission rates. This dissertation aims to evaluate long-term trends in mobile source emissions in the United States, and to make detailed measurements of emissions from present-day fleets of on-road vehicles operating in California. Novel features of this work include studies of the in-use effectiveness of modern control technologies used to reduce diesel engine emissions, and application of advanced instrumentation to measure emissions from large numbers of on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles at high time resolution and with a high level of chemical and physical detail. Long-term trends in mobile source emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the United States were investigated through development of a fuel-based emission inventory. Annual emissions from on- and off-road gasoline and diesel engines were quantified for the years 1996-2006. Diesel engines were found to be the dominant mobile source of NOx and PM2.5, and on-road diesel vehicles were identified as the single largest anthropogenic source of NOx emissions in the United States as of 2005. The relative importance of diesel engines as a source of NOx grew over the ten-year time period considered here, while emissions from gasoline engines declined due to increased effectiveness and use of three-way catalytic converters. A comparison with national emission inventory estimates for 2005 found substantial differences in source contributions to overall mobile source emissions, with larger contributions from on-road diesel engines indicated in this study. The importance of diesel engines as a source of exhaust particulate matter emissions has led to the recent introduction of advanced emission control technologies in the United States, such as diesel particle filters (DPF), which have been required since 2007 for all new on-road heavy-duty (HD) diesel engines. In addition to national requirements for the use of such control devices on new engines, California has mandated accelerated clean-up of statewide emissions from older in-use diesel engines. This goal is to be achieved through filter retrofit and truck/engine replacement programs. This dissertation uses measurements of emissions from in-use HD diesel trucks at the Port of Oakland to evaluate the impacts of a DPF retrofit and truck replacement program. A plume capture method was developed to quantify black carbon (BC) and NOx emission factors for individual trucks and to characterize emission factor distributions. A comparison of emissions measured before and after the implementation of the truck retrofit/replacement rule shows a 54 " 11% reduction in the fleet-average BC emission factor, accompanied by a shift to a more highly skewed emission factor distribution. Although only particulate matter mass reductions were required in the first phase of the program, a 41 " 5% reduction in the fleet-average NOx emission factor was observed. These results provide an in-use/real-world assessment of the impact of DPF emission control systems, and a preview of emissions changes that may be expected from the extension of similar control programs to the entire HD truck fleet in California beginning in 2014. The plume capture method was further applied to measure emissions from a more diverse population of trucks observed at the Caldecott tunnel in summer 2010. Emissions from hundreds of individual trucks were measured, and emission factor distributions were characterized for nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde, BC, as well as optical properties of the emitted particles. Emission factor distributions for all species were skewed, with a small fraction of trucks contributing disproportionately to total emissions. For example, half of the total measured NO2 and BC were produced by only 10% of the total measurements. Total NOx and formaldehyde showed less skewed emission factor distributions compared to CO and BC. Emission factors for NO2 were found to be anti-correlated with all other pollutants considered here. Also, the fleet-average NO2 emission factor increased 34 " 18% relative to the corresponding value measured at the same location in 2006. These findings confirm that the use of catalyzed DPF systems is leading to increased primary NO2 emissions. Absorption and scattering cross-section emission factors were used to calculate the aerosol single scattering albedo (SSA, at 532 nm) for individual truck exhaust plumes, which averaged 0.14 " 0.03. This value of aerosol SSA is very low compared to typical values (0.90-0.99) observed in ambient air studies. It is indicative of a strongly light-absorbing aerosol, due to the high BC emissions that are a characteristic feature of diesel exhaust PM emissions. Measurements at the Caldecott tunnel also included efforts to quantify light-duty (LD) gasoline vehicle emission factors, and further investigation of the relative contributions of on-road gasoline and diesel engines to air pollutant emissions. Measurements of CO, NOx, PM2.5, BC, and organic aerosol (OA) were made in a tunnel traffic bore where LD vehicles account for>99% of total traffic. Measured pollutant concentrations were apportioned between LD gasoline vehicles and diesel trucks, and fleet-average emission factors were quantified for LD gasoline vehicles using a carbon balance method. Diesel trucks contributed 18 " 3, 22 " 5, 44 " 8% of measured NOx, OA, and BC concentrations, respectively, despite accounting for

This book presents selected research papers on current developments in the fields of soft computing and signal processing from the Third International Conference on Soft Computing and Signal Processing (ICSCSP 2020). The book covers topics such as soft sets, rough sets, fuzzy logic, neural networks, genetic algorithms and machine learning and discusses various aspects of these topics, e.g., technological considerations, product implementation and application issues.

The Mobile Source Emissions Factor (MOBILE) model is a computer model developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for estimating emissions from on-road motor vehicles. MOBILE is used in air-quality planning and regulation for estimating emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and for predicting the effects of emissions-reduction programs. Because of its important role in air-quality management, the accuracy of MOBILE is critical. Possible consequences of inaccurately characterizing motor-vehicle emissions include the implementation of insufficient controls that endanger the environment and public health or the implementation of ineffective policies that impose excessive control costs. Billions of dollars per year in transportation funding are linked to air-quality attainment plans, which rely on estimates of mobile-source emissions. Transportation infrastructure decisions are also affected by emissions estimates from MOBILE. In response to a request from Congress, the National Research Council established the Committee to Review EPA's Mobile Source Emissions Factor (MOBILE) Model in October 1998. The committee was charged to evaluate MOBILE and to develop recommendations for improving the model.

Covers : Background. Basis and objectives of a long term strategy. Air quality perspectives. Review of the study. Alternative vehicle emission control technologies. Other approaches to emission control. Economic analysis. Implementation arrangements, unleaded petrol strategy. Marketing and distribution of unleaded petrol. Design rule for future exhaust emission standards. Non uniform approach to emission standards and the lead content of petrol. Implications of NSW proposal of unleaded petrol and motor vehicle emission standards. Fuel consumption. Air pollution. Lead free petrol. This report contains the basis of a long term strategy; objectives of a long term strategy, air quality perspectives, review of the study, alternative vehicle emission control technologies; other approaches to emission control; economic analysis; implementation arrangements unleaded petrol strategy; marketing and distribution of unleaded petrol; design rule for future exhaust emission standards; non uniform approach to emission standards and the lead content of petrol, implications of NSW proposals on unleaded petrol and motor vehicle emission standards. Air pollution. Vehicle design. Unleaded petrol.