The earth’s cryosphere, which includes snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, ice shelves, sea ice, river and lake ice, and permafrost, contains about 75% of the earth’s fresh water. It exists at almost all latitudes, from the tropics to the poles, and plays a vital role in controlling the global climate system. It also provides direct visible evidence of the effect of climate change, and, therefore, requires proper understanding of its complex dynamics. This encyclopedia mainly focuses on the various aspects of snow, ice and glaciers, but also covers other cryospheric branches, and provides up-to-date information and basic concepts on relevant topics. It includes alphabetically arranged and professionally written, comprehensive and authoritative academic articles by well-known international experts in individual fields. The encyclopedia contains a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from the atmospheric processes responsible for snow formation; transformation of snow to ice and changes in their properties; classification of ice and glaciers and their worldwide distribution; glaciation and ice ages; glacier dynamics; glacier surface and subsurface characteristics; geomorphic processes and landscape formation; hydrology and sedimentary systems; permafrost degradation; hazards caused by cryospheric changes; and trends of glacier retreat on the global scale along with the impact of climate change. This book can serve as a source of reference at the undergraduate and graduate level and help to better understand snow, ice and glaciers. It will also be an indispensable tool containing specialized literature for geologists, geographers, climatologists, hydrologists, and water resources engineers; as well as for those who are engaged in the practice of agricultural and civil engineering, earth sciences, environmental sciences and engineering, ecosystem management, and other relevant subjects.

Observations were made at 19 sites in and around the Fort Greely Military Reservation in Alaska during the winter of 1966-67 to obtain data on the depth and physical properties of the snow cover. Snowfall in 1966-67 totaled 245 cm, which was more than 2-1/2 times the seasonal normal. Maximum snow depths of 80 to 100 cm were observed in a major portion of the reservation. Measurements at nine sites showed that the snow density at Fort Greely was generally light; e.g., the average density in the forest did not exceed 0.24 g/cu cm. However, exceptions such as at Jarvis Creek, where the density averaged 0.33 g/cu cm, could be expected. On the average, less snow falls at Fort Greely than at other interior Alaskan locations; but the average density of the snow cover at all interior Alaska sites is quite light. Relationships between snow-cover properties and climate were tested using data collected at Fort Greely. The results substantiated the relationships between (1) snow hardness and snow density measurements and (2) average snow densities with average windspeed and air temperatures. Snow temperature measurements at Fort Greely showed that the snow in the forest was colder than at exposed sites, primarily because the average air temperature within the forest canopy was lower than that in the open area. (Author).

The Fort Greely area in the interior of Alaska is especially interesting because it has such a wide variety of snow types. It contains the low density snow, consisting mostly of depth hoar, which is typical of wind sheltered valleys. It also has hard windpacked snow in unforested places because of the prevalence of strong winds from Isabell Pass in the Alaska Range. The snow structure evolves through the winter in different ways, depending on exposure to wind and to temperature gradients in the snow. The effect of snow structure on vehicle traffic is extremely variable from place to place. This is documented by measurements of density, temperature, and ram hardness together with 21 photographs and 9 line drawings.

Heading for Doraville, North Carolina, to investigate the disappearance of a young boy, Harper Connelly and her brother Tolliver are stunned to discover that he is one of several teens who had vanished over the previous five years, but when she uses her talent to communicate with the dead to find the missing boy, she discovers that her knowledge has placed her in the sights of a killer. 175,000 first printing.

This paper presents a comprehensive assessment of the water storage properties of glaciers and seasonal snow, carried out for the first time at a major river basin scale, for the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Mekong basins. It analyzes the changes of glaciers and snow under recent climate change, i.e., between the baseline (1961-1990) and current (2001-2010) periods. The paper also addresses climate change sensitivity of glacier systems and the changes that might be expected under a warming scenario for the end of the twenty-first century.